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The civilizational role of Islam in the Indian subcontinent: The Delhi sultanate
Arshad Islam
Associate Professor in the Department of History and Civilization, International Islamic University Malaysia. Email: arshad@iium. edu.my.
Kilugarhi was the name of a village on the banks of the Jamuna River. After the death of Sultan Balban, his grandson Kayqubad, son of the Bughra Khan ascended the throne with the name of Sultan Muiz al-Din Kayqubad in 1287. He ordered the construction of a magnificent palace and laid the foundation of a township with a beautiful garden at Kilugarhi. He ordered all nobles, ministers and elites to build their abodes nearby and it soon became a populous place for residence. Malik Majd al-Mulk, the father of Zia al-Din Barani, also constructed a magnificent house there (Barani, 2005, p. 209). After the death of Kayqubad, Sultan Jalal al-Din Firoz Khalji completed the unfinished palace of Kayqubad and made it his residence. He ordered his ministers to build their houses there as well. The palace was elaborately decorated and the coronation ceremony was held there (Syed Ahmad, 1904, p. 16).
Under the Tughluqs (1320-1414), the same enthusiasm continued among both the Sultans and nobles. Literary and epigraphic evidence indicates the keen interest of nobles in the construction of different monuments. Under Ghiyas al Din Tughluq, Malikzadah Ahmad ibn Ayaz was Shahna-i-imarat, the superintendent of buildings, and under Muhammad Tughluq, Malikzadah was promoted to the post of Prime Minister with the title of Khwaja-i Jahan (Barani, 2005, pp. 424, 454, 527; Isami, 1948, pp. 386,412-13,420; Ibn Battuta, 1953, pp. 654-55; Badauni, 1868, pp. 227,237, Farooqui, 2011, p.80). The superintendent supervised the technical work of the building department like masonry, carpentry, blacksmith and stone cutting and dressing. The finance department (Diwan-i-wazarat) examined the buildings’ plans and after a careful scrutiny, they sanctioned adequate funds to architects (Afif, 1891, p. 331; Nath, 1978, p. 60). Malik Zahirul-Juyush, a famous architect who supervised the Khurramabad palace, initiated a plan of four-iwan for Sultan’s Jami Mosque (Barani, 2005, p. 454).
Under the Tughluqs, a number of cities were founded, e.g. Tughluqabad (1321), Jahanpanah (1327) and Firozabad (1354), reflecting considerably sophisticated town planning techniques. Some of the outstanding buildings constructed during the period include the tomb of Ghiyas al-Din Tughluq (r. 1320-1325), the Kalan mosque (1387) and the Lal Darwazah Masjid Jaunpur (1388). Ghiyas al-Din Tughluq took personal interest in repairing and restoring the old monuments and mosques. Firoz Shah built a new capital city known as Firoz Shah Kotla (1354) on the banks of the Yamuna (Jamuna). He also founded the fortified cities of Jaunpur, Fathabad and Hisar. These are only some examples from among numerous magnificent works of architectural art from this period (Syed Ahmad, 1904, pp. 24, 41-42; Percy, 1975, pp. 20, 22, 24, 144; Azizuddin, 2008, p. 6).
Firoz Shah is well known among the Tughluqs for his construction activities. He built Masjid-i-Jami Firozi in Delhi in 1354. Its dome contained an inscription (an elaborate description of deeds and achievements of the Sultan), which was later published as Futuhat-i
Firoz Shahi. He constructed the Kalan or Kali Masjid in 1370 (Storey, 1972, p. 151; Percy, 1975, pp. 22-3). Other constructions include the Begampuri Mosque, Kalu Sarai Mosque (built around 1387), and the Khirki Mosque (Afif, 1891, p. 101; Beg, 1982, pp. 24, 84; Syed Ahmad, 1904, pp. 29, 37-40).
Among the religious buildings constructed by Firoz Shah, Madrasa Hauz Khas in Delhi is well-known. It was a magnificent three-storey large complex that housed a large number of students. There were residential quarters in the vicinity of the madrasa and a masjid inside the campus. Firoz Shah also built the dargah (mausoleum) of Nasir al-Din Chiragh-i-Dilli in 1370 along with a mosque. Among his constructions is included a bund (barrage) in Delhi (Percy, 1975, p. 24). Firoz Shah was extremely excited on the occasion of receiving the Qadam Sharif (the footprint of the Prophet Muhammad) brought by Jahanian Jahan Gasht (d. 1384), which he fixed on the tomb of Prince Fath Khan. A mosque, madrasa and a hauz (cistern) were built there in 1374. The dargah of Saiyid Mahmud Bahar, a descendant of Saiyid Nasir al-Din of Sonipat, was also constructed by Firoz Shah (Afif, 1891, p. 100; Beg, 1982, pp. 88, 92-3; Syed Ahmad, 1904, pp. 27, 37).
Firoz Shah constructed a Chillagah (place of meditation) for the Sufis known as Pir Ghaib (‘hidden saint’). Next to it, the Kaushik i-Jahan-Numa was built by the Sultan as a hunting ground. Hunting lodges (shikargah) and resting places such as Kushak-i-Firozi were constructed. He is said to have built some 120 khanqahs (hospices) in Delhi for the poor. A person was allowed to stay up to three days in each on a rotation basis (to discourage professional scrounging), but the indigent could stay in these facilities throughout the year at royal expense.
During the reign of Firoz Shah, most buildings were constructed from cheap, locally available materials with local techniques, requiring little specialist workmanship. However, these monuments suffered extensive damage over time, and the remains of the former corridors of power in the Delhi Sultanate are now decaying and dilapidated (Syed Ahmad, 1904, pp. 25, 34-36; Azizuddin, 2008, p. 10).
Hospitals under Tughlughs
The Tughluqs established hospitals and promoted Unani medicine in India. Ghiyas al-DinTughluq, the founder of the Tughluq dynasty, displayed great interest in medicine and personally bandaged the wounds of injured soldiers of Khusrau Khan during the conquest of Delhi in 1320 (Khusrau, 1933, p. 102; Wasty, 1974, p. 17; Azmi, 1992, p. 52). For the welfare of the public, Muhammad Tughluq established seventy hospitals in Delhi alone and employed 1,200 physicians. The Sultan himself was a Tabib (physician), and he took keen interest in the profession. This policy was continued by Firoz Shah with the same spirit and vigour, adding five more hospitals to house expert physicians. Rich and poor patients were treated free of charge and also served food as a spiritual honour for the Sultan (Barani, 2005, pp. 463-4; Agha, 1996, pp. 127-8).
Contribution of scholars and their literary productions
It is important to note that the elite of the Delhi Sultanate were not only preoccupied with political and administrative affairs, they were equally devoted to patronizing men and women of letters in their pursuits of academic and literary contribution, thereby facilitating vibrant development in literature, sciences and various crafts. As the nobles themselves were well-versed in diverse branches of sciences, they produced a variety of literature in numerous languages, mainly Persian, Arabic, Awadhi and Hindawi. Their literary production can be grouped into literary works composed by the nobles themselves, and those whom they patronized.
Works by aristocrats
Majd al-Mulk Baha al-Din al-Jamji was a prominent noble and a well known Qutbi Amir. He was a poet of great merit and used to compose fine poetry (Awfi, 1906, pp. 467-8). Rukn al-Din Samarqandi (d.1218), who was appointed Qazi of Lakhnauti by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji
(d. 1206), learned Sanskrit in Bengal from a local yogi (Hindu ascetic) and subsequently rendered Amritkund, a Sanskrit work on yoga entitled Hauz al-Hayat into Persian, assisted by Bhoj, a local Brahman. He further rendered this book into Arabic entitled Mirat al-Ma’ani fi Idrak i-Alam-i-Insani. This was a pioneering effort in opening the traditionally hidden and sacerdotal knowledge and traditions of India to the outside world. Muhammad Ghaus Shattari Gwaliori (d. 1562) rendered it again into Persian entitled Bahr al-Hayat (Rashid, 1969, pp. 46-52; Hadi, 1995, pp. 519-20).
Malik Taj al-Din Reza, a dabir (secretary) of Iltutmish, was a Persian poet of repute born in India. Due to his excellent poetry, he received appreciation from the elite of Delhi (Sijzi 68; Qamaruddin 72). Taj Reza recited an admirable qasida celebrating the occasion of receiving the robe of honour for Iltutmish sent by the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir (r.1226-1242) (Qawwas, 1999, p. 297; Hadi, 1995, p. 517). On the occasion of the conquest of the Gwalior fort by Iltutmish, Reza composed verses which were later inscribed on the fort’s gate. Similarly, he composed qasaid praising Rukn al-Din Firoz and his wazir Malik Nizam al-Mulk Junaidi (Qawwas, 1999, pp. 54-5; Badauni, 1868, I, pp. 67, 69; Nizam al-Din, 1927, p. 29; Farishta, 1884-85, p. 66). He was also known to have composed a couplet on the occasion of Shams Dabir’s appointment as the mustaufi-i-mamalik (Auditor General of the Sultanate) during the reign of Nasir al-Din Mahmud (Sijzi, 1894, pp. 68, 127-8).
Shams al-Din Dabir was a resident of Samana, and besides his secretarial accomplishments he was also an eminent poet. He was devoted to Farid al-Din Masúd Ganj-i-Shakar (1175-1265), the famous Chishti Saint. Due to his eloquent poetry he was given the title Malik al-Kalam (‘Lord of Eloquence’) by Nasir al-Din. Shams al-Din Dabir was a good friend of Amir Khusrau; the latter cited him in his writings and composed a qasida in his praise (Sijzi, 1894, pp. 68, 127-8).
Minhaj al-Din ‘Umar ibn Siraj al-Din Muḥammad al-Juzjani, the celebrated author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri as well as a poet of great eminence, was appointed as the mudir (principal) of Madarsa-i-Firozia in Uchh by the then ruler Nasir al-Din Qubach in 1227 (Minhaj, 1954, pp. 175, 188. 200, 296, 303; Barani, 2005, p.14; Farishta, 1884-85, p.71). After Qubacha’s death, Minhaj came to Delhi in 1228 and received the patronage of Shams al-Din Iltutmish, who appointed him qazi, khatib (preacher), muhtasib (superintendent of morals) and imam of Gwalior. He was in fact made responsible for all religious affairs and was later assigned the office of Sadr-i-Jahan (Chief Ecclesiastic of the State). He was appointed as the qazi of Delhi and made qazi-i-Mamalik by Bahram Shah in 1241, but after Bahram Shah’s death, Minhaj resigned and moved to Bengal. He returned to Delhi and was appointed as the mudir (principal) of the Nasiriya College at Delhi, and superintendent of its awqaf (endowments) in 1244. Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, an eyewitness account of the reign of Iltumish and his successors, makes particular note of the foundation of Muslim rule in Bengal from its conquest by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji until 1259 (Minhaj, 1954, pp. 144, 191, 202-205, 211; Sijzi, 1894, pp. 53, 265). Amid Loyaki, an Afghan of the Loyak clan, was a scholar of repute who earned fame for his skill of composing qasida. Balban conferred upon him the title Fakhr al-Mulk. Amid later joined the court of Balban’s son, Muhammad at Multan (Badauni, 1868, pp. 96-99).
Amir Khusrau belonged to a family of eminent nobles. His father was an Amir and his maternal grandfather Imadul Mulk was the Rawat Arz (Minister of War) of Sultan Balban. Amir Saifuddin Mahmud, the father of Amir Khusrau lived at Patiyali in Etah, Uttar Pradesh, where Amir Khusrau was born in 1253. From an early age he began to compose verses and ghazals that drew attention and admiration from the elders. He was initially under the patronage of Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban, after which he came to Bughra Khan, the Governor of Bengal; soon after he joined the court of Prince Muhammad, the eldest son of Balban at Multan. Amir Khusrau enjoyed extraordinary mastery over all forms of poetry. After the death of Prince Muhammad, he composed moving elegies under the title Hukm-al-Hikam, a section of his diwan, Wast-al-Hayat (Middle of Life), in which he depicted the tragedy at Multan and the awful death of the Prince (Barani, 2005, p. 129; Badauni, 1868, I, p. 13; Bakhshi, 1927, p. 98; Habib, 2005, p. 18; Mirza 1962, pp. 29, 155-57).
Khusrau is one of the few Indian poets whose poetic accomplishments have been conceded by the Iranians. He was a prolific writer of both prose and poetry and in both genres he has left a vast corpus, but his genius flowed more naturally in poetry. In prose, his Ijaza-i-Khusravi (5 volumes) and Khazain al-Futuh are very well-known. In poetry, besides historical mathnavis, he has left behind several collections of his poems. He successfully served seven Sultans and was counted among the very close disciples of Shaykh Nizam al-Din Auliya (d. 1325). He died on 18 Shawwal 725/26 September 1225 and was buried next to the grave of Shaykh Nizamal-Din Auliya (Mirza, 1962, pp. 136-37). A contemporary of Amir Khusrau was Amir Hasan Sijzi (d. 1336), the famous author of Fawaid al-Fuad, i.e. the collection of malfuzat (sayings) of Shaykh Nizam al Din Auliya. It is not only an anthology of Sufi discourses over a fifteen- year period, but rather it is an inclusive, authentic and fascinating testimony of the socio-cultural and religious life of the period. From a literary point of view, his ghazals are considered to be of a very high standard of extraordinary beauty.
Zia al-Din Barani (d.1357) was a historian, jurist and political thinker and the author of Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari. Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi is a valuable source of the Delhi Sultanate from the reign of Sultan Balban to that of the first six years of Firoz Shah’s reign, while Fatawa-i-Jahandari is a book on political philosophy and statecraft that deals with the counsel to rulers for good governance. He is the first historian known to have recorded the socio-economic conditions of the time, particularly with regard to the Delhi Sultanate.
Maulana Zia al-Din Sunami, a reputed scholar of religious sciences, was an authority on tafsir and fiqh. He was a muhtasib (Supervisor of Public Morals) during the reigns of Ala al-Din Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. Maulana Zia al-Din wrote a treatise in Arabic entitled Nisab al-Ihtisab, as a manual for muhtasibs. In this book, he explained the definition, significance and objectives of hisbah and discussed in detail the duties of muhtasib. It served as a reference book for a number of judicial works including Fatawa-i-Firozshahi and Fatawa-i Hammadiah compiled during the 16th century (Barani, 2005, p. 356; Zafarul Islam, 2005, pp. 8-9). Maulana Razi al-Din Hasan al-Saghani (d. 1252), a native of Badaun, started his career as naib-i-mushrif (deputy account officer) in Koil (Aligarh). He rose to be a great scholar and later compiled Mashariq-al-Anwar. It was the most popular hadith collection throughout the medieval period and constituted an integral part of the syllabus (Sijzi, 1894, pp. 103-05; Nizami, 2002, pp. 163-4).
Qazi Kamal al-Din Jafri, a qazi of Badaun, was known for his piety and scholarship. He compiled a book on fiqh entitled Munfiq (Sijzi, 1894, pp. 225, 236-7; Qalandar, 1959, p. 211). Thakkura Pheru, a Jain scholar and a mint officer of Ala al-Din Khalji, wrote on a variety of scientific subjects in Prakrit. His well-known works are Kharataragaccha yugapradhana-catuhpadhika, Jyotisara, Dravyaparikkha, Vastusara, Rayanaparikkha, Dhatupatti and Ganitasarakaumudi (Bhandarkar, 1907, p. 38).
Kabir al-Din, son of Taj al-Din Iraqi, was a court historian of Ala al-Din Khalji, and an expert in dabiri (secretarial) skills and the art of insha. He was appointed as Amir-i-Dad-i Lashkar and composed Fathnama (‘Letters of Victory’), which ran into several volumes. He also composed Tarikh-i-Alai, which appraised the career and achievements of Ala al-Din Khalji (Barani, 2005, pp. 14, 361; Lal, 1980, p. 341). Ahmad Hasan Abdusi, known as Taj al-Mulk, was a noble of Ghiyas al-Din Tughluq who joined Sultan’s Lakhnauti expedition in 1324, and authored Basatin al-Uns and Sadr-i-‘Ala. The Basatin al-Uns, a Hindu tale written in a style of metaphorical Persian, was completed in 1325. Muhammad Tughluq promoted him as Dabir-i-Khas by assigning him the title, Taj al-Mulk (Rashid, 1969, p. 171; Jackson, 1999, p. 153). The most prominent literary figure during the Tughluq period was Malik Ain al-Mulk, commonly known as Ain al-Mulk Mahru, who compiled a number of works on different sciences including Tarassul-i-Ain al Mulki, commonly known as Insha-i-Mahru. It was a collection of letters which testifies to his literary skill and is regarded as a model of the Insha literature. It is also a very important source of historical information regarding the period. Tatar Khan, an adopted son of Ghiyas al-Din Tughluq, and the governor of Zafarabad, was a poet who used to compose verses to appease the temper of Muhammad Tughluq (Barani, 2005, 424, 454; Afif, 1891, pp. 409-10, 488; Zilli, 2000, p. 326).
Malik Shams al- Din Abu Rija, alias Ziya al-Mulk, the mustaufi-i mamalik, was an intelligent and accomplished qasida writer under Firoz Shah (Afif, 1891, p. 456). Ibn Battuta came to India in 1333 and became the Qazi of Delhi. He wrote a long poem in praise of Muhammad Tughluq and his travelogue Tuhfat al-Nuzzar fi Gharaib al-Amsar wa Ajaib al-Asfar, popularly known as Rehla, was a valuable work for the fourteenth century Muslim world (Ibn Battuta, 1953, p.750; Selin, 1997, p. 417). Malik Qabul Qara Khan, a jurist under Firoz Shah Tughluq, compiled a legal digest entitled Fatawa-i-Qara Khani for the guidance of Qazis (Hadi, 1995, p. 482). Aziz al-Din ibn Abdullah (Mutahhar of Kara) came from Iran and was appointed as qazi of Kara (near Allahabad) by Firoz Shah. He is known for his qasidas praising Firoz Shah and his successor Nasir al-Din Mahmud Shah. He paid tribute to Ain al-Mulk and his sons, Malik Husam al-Din and Karim al-Din, by composing a number of qasidas.
Amir Ikhtiyar al-Din was a noble at the court of Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq. He composed qasidas in praise of a new palace built by the Sultan (Chandra, 2003, p. 363). Qazi Zahir Dihlavi was a brilliant poet under Nasir al-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq. His Diwan (anthology) is full of qasidas in tribute to Mahmud (Badauni, 1868, p. 257). Yahya ibn Ahmad Sirhindi, a courtier of Saiyid ruler Mubarak Shah, wrote Tarikh i-Mubarakshahi as a token of gratitude to the Sultan (Hadi, 1995, pp. 623-4). Masnad-i-‘Ali Mian Bhu’a, the wazir and sadr of Sikandar Lodi, had particular interest in the field of ilm-i-tibb (medicine), and compiled the Tibb-i-Sikandar Shahi. Mian Bhu’a, after gaining mastery over Sanskrit, studied the Ayurvedic system of medicine which he combined with Tibb-i-Unani to produce Ma’adan al-Shifa-i Sikandar Shahi, using different Sanskrit classics like Ja Deskarat, Ras Ratnako, Suangdhar and Chintama as his source materials (Mushtaqi, 2002, pp. 79-80; Rashid, 1969, pp. 171-2).
Works patronized by aristocrats
Under the Delhi Sultanate, nobles enjoyed great influence. Being a leisure class of conspicuous consumers and artistic connoisseurs, they generously used this influence for patronizing poets, intellectuals and craftsmen. This practice of extending patronage to the litterateur and scholars was initiated by the Mamluk nobles and continued till the end of the Delhi Sultanate (Askari, 1957, p. 19; Shahnawaz, 2014, p. 134). Muaiyid-i-Jajarmi Abul Ma’ali, attached to the Shamsi court, translated Ihya-u-Ulum al-Din into Persian in 1250 on the instruction of Nizam al-Mulk Junaidi, the wazir of Iltutmish. Junaidi patronized a number of scholars and poets like Sadid-al-Din Muhammad Awfi, who composed Lubab-al-Albab and Jawami-al-Hikayat wa Lawami ar-riwayat and dedicated them to Junaidi. Amir Ruhani, Taj al-Din Bukhari and Siraji Khurasani, eminent poets, also composed interesting qasidas exhibiting love for their patron Junaidi (Hadi, 1995, p. 360; Siddiqui, 2003, p. 83).
Malik Qutb al-Din Hasan Ghuri (d.1254), the naib-i-mulk under Ala al-Din Masúd, patronized Shams Moin, a prominent poet and prose writer who wrote on the life and achievements of his patron (Minhaj, 1954, pp. 196-98; Nizami, 2002, p.148). Kamal Karim Nagauri,the compiler of Majmu-i-Khani, a Persian work on fiqh, dedicated it to Ulugh Qutlagh-i-Azam Muazzam Bahram Khan (d.1388). He was a tutor of Muhammad Tughluq and was held in great respect by the Sultan (Barani, 2005, p. 113; Khusrau, 1890, pp. 68-9). Malik Tatar Khan, an eminent noble under Firoz Shah Tughluq, was well known for his sponsorship of two major Islamic works, Tafsir-i-Tatar Khani and Fatawa-i-Tatarkhani, written around 1375. The two pieces of work required a panel of leading Ulama headed by Maulana Alim al-Andapati (Dehlavi). The importance of the Fatawa is due to its extensive range, which includes contemporary social and religious issues like prayers, fosterage, divorce, maintenance and manumission of slaves, oaths, international relations, penalties, apostasy, abandonment of slaves, missing persons, partnership and endowment, as well as relations with non-Muslims (Afif, 1891, p. 392; Nadvi, 1932, p. 96).
Maulana Daud of Dalmau wrote his famous Hindi masnavi Chandayan in early Awadhi script, dedicated to Khan-i-Jahan Juna Shah during the reign of Firoz Shah in 1373. Malik Shams al-Din Ibrahim Hasan Abu Raja, the governor of Gujarat, patronized scholars who wrote an anonymous Persian work on music, Ghunyat al-Munya (‘Pleasure of Desire’), the earliest known Persian work on Indian music, composed in Gujarat in 1375. It was written at the request of the Governor of Gujarat, Malik Shams al-Din Ibrahim Ḥasan Abu Raja. The author utilized many classical Indian books on music like Bharata, Sangit-Ratnakara, Sangit-Ratnavali, Sangit-Binod, Sangit-Mudra, Satanak and Raga Avarna (Hadi, 1995, p. 207).
Mian Bhu’a, a great intellectual and wazir of Sikandar Lodi, sponsored the translation of significant Sanskrit works into Persian. Mian Bhu’a encouraged Umar ibn Yahya al-Kabuli to compile a voluminous work on classical Indian Music entitled Lahjat-i-Sikandar Shahi. He consulted the Indian classical works like Sangit-Ratnakar, Sangit Sangarah, Ud Bharat, Sudha Nidhi, Sangit Samassaya, Sangit Kalpataro and Sangit Matanga. Asim Shu‘aib Abdusi compiled a dictionary, Mu’jam al-Ajam, under the patronage of Dawud Khan, an Afghan noble of Sikandar Lodi, in 1493 (Al-Kabuli, 1999, pp. 14-5; Nazir Ahmad, 1972, p. 410; Hadi, 1995, p. 95).
Conclusion
The success of the amazing scientific temperament and broad mindedness of Indo-Muslim rulers and people of the Delhi Sultanate established the predominance of ‘Indo-Islamic Civilization’ in the Islamic East in all fields of knowledge. Islamic elites in the Sultanate provided a broadly tolerant umbrella under which the intercontinental exchange of information and ideas was facilitated and made accessible to the wider world. The salient feature of the Delhi Sultans was their outward looking attitude, pursuing a more vigorous and creative foreign policy than the Mughals. Three Sultans of Delhi received official investiture, both from Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad and Cairo. Iltutmish was the first to establish diplomatic relations with the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah (r.1226-1242) and received a patent of investiture by the Caliph’s messenger who confirmed him the title Yamin Khalifat Allah and Nasir Amir al-Mu’minin in 1229.
A hundred years later, Sultan Muhammad Tughluq also received Haji Said Sarsari, an emissary of the Abbasid Caliph of Egypt Al-Hakim II (r. 1341-1352) to Delhi, in 1344. Sultan Firoz Shah Tughluq twice received mandates from the Egyptian Caliph Al-Mu‘tadid Billah (r. 1352-1362) as Sayf al-Khilafat (Sword of the Khilafat), and Qasim Amir al-Mu’minin (Partner of the Commander of Faithful) in 1354. In 1362, he received another patent from the new Abbasid Caliph Al-Mutawakkil Billah I (r. 1362-1383) with the title Sayyid al-Salatin (Lord of Sultans) (Afif, 1891, pp. 274-76; Jackson, 1999, p. 296).
Islamic civilization under the Delhi Sultanate paved the way for the local populace to experience Islamic religion, which liberated many people from the rigid restrictions of the traditional caste system and introduced refinements in cuisine, apparel, town planning and the arts. India also proved to be a fertile ground for Persian language and Islamic learning, and indigenous scholars as well as émigrés produced many fundamental and key works in various fields, particularly their fostering and development of Sufism and Hanafi fiqh.
The factor facilitating the remarkable civilizational fillip given to India and the world under the Delhi Sultanate was the robe of Islamic civilization that justified the rule and power of the Sultans and aristocracy, and which conferred legitimacy on them by virtue of their lavish patronage of material welfare and propagation of knowledge of all kinds for the advancement, preservation, harmony and adornment of society. Although there is much blood in the history of all world civilizations, rarely do we find such a legacy of educational, artistic and civilizational excellence as that of the Islamic world and medieval India. Just as the world should acknowledge the debt it owes to India, India must also acknowledge the debt it owes to Islam and to the generations of Muslims who fostered learning and progress through striving to live up to the words of the Prophet Muhammad, who said (narrated on the authority of Zayd ibn Thabit):
May Allah brighten the face of the person who hears what I say and retains it, then conveys it to others: for sometimes one who hears from another remembers it better than the original hearer himself (Musnad Ahmad and Sunan at-Tirmidhi).
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