Hala Qasqas
Intruduction
This paper is concerned with analyzing the intellectual and structural influences that resulted in differents elements of Mughal painting in India during the seventeenth and sixteenth centuries. The human body constitutes a universal, fundamental and socio-cultural point of reference for artistic expression in Mughal art. In the Indian subcontinent, the human body has always been the subject of representations, even for non-human subjects through innovative strategies such as anthropomorphism, morphology, and personification which are potent tools of metaphysical articulation. Therefore, I have selected four paintings as samples of these strategies, which artistically have a greater expression than speech, language, or writing (Gonzale, 2015, 152). By analyzing the four paintings selected for this research paper, we will notice that the human being is central both to the visual composition of the painting as well as the story which it represents.
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In
general, the Mughal artists' approach to
the subject is purely documentary. Their
novels do not evoke religious sentiments, and thus their paintings remain descriptive visual narratives. In general, the Mughal school
of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries was never intended to display
the ideology or philosophy of a caste,
cult, or dogma. This made it decidedly
secular (Verma, 2000, 513).
Nevertheless, we can notice some
paintings with a religious character, whether through the theme, such as paintings of
the Islamic theme, or influences, such
as paintings containing influences from
the Christian religion.
When
discussing the originality, themes and influences of Mughal painting, it is
easy to see a parallel in the issue of
originality in Mughal culture as a
whole. Mughal culture displays a mixture
of Persian and Indian elements and later
European influences. However, it is
noticeable that the paintings painted in
the era of Akbar were almost original
and distinct from the previous eras. In
other words, its culture is as original as it
expresses its character. At the same time, we must realize that this new style did not
fully develop in Akbar's own time. One
of Akbar's painters rarely produced any
work of fundamental importance because
they were occupied mainly with imitating
Persian mannerisms. Mughal painting as
an independent style belongs to the
17th century, not the 16th century. The
true Mughal style developed very rapidly
after about 1600 AD. The term
"Indo-Persian" only correctly
applies to the early Mughal style: it
does not correctly describe late Mughal
work (Coomaraswamy, 1910, 875).
The characteristic of artistic discourse in the seventeenth century denotes a life of luxury and prosperity. In the painting focused on the events of the imperial court, realism prevailed and proportions were controlled with complete accuracy. The use of shadows, light, linear perspective and realistic colour backgrounds were also widespread. The Mughal artist seems determined to focus on the details of each particular subject. Trees, hills, birds, animals, and buildings are introduced to accentuate the landscape, but the focus of the is on the camp assistants, ordinary people and attendees following the king. It is clear that the complexity of the composition for each painting depends on thenarrative of each individual artist, as well as dealing with other artistic elements, i.e., space and time, balance and rhythm, and other aspects (Verma, 2016, 388).
This
paper will analyze four Mughal paintings
chosen according to their different
themes of religion, architecture, leisure, and power, which consequently encompass the many diverse activities that made up everyday life in the Mughal era. After all,
art is the attempt by humans to portray
their own life experiences and
perspectives in permanent form.
Although, as is clear from these
samples, the majority of Mughal art
deals with the secular subject matter, the first painting, Noah's Ark (circa the late
1570s–ca. 1604), shows a religious
perspective of the world and is a
beautiful expression of the Mughal
interest in religious matters. The
second painting is by Bandi, and depicts
Akbar inspecting the construction of
Fatehpur (c. 1590-95). The third painting is by Govardhan, and depicts Shah Shuja with
a Beloved, (ca. 1596–1645). This
painting shows the bold presence of
women through the Mughal painting, who
are rarely seen in the leisure paintings
in Mughal art. The fourth painting is by
Bichitr, and shows Aurangzeb seated on a
golden throne holding a hawk to depict
the power of that era. Therefore, I will
address a question: Did most Mughal
paintings follow a specific theme, as we
note that most themes were about leisure
in the Mughal Emperor court, or is there a diversity of themes from different influences? This is what I will try to
highlight in this paper. My objective is
to study the most common themes of
Mughal art between the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries as represented by
these four paintings in the Islamic
Mughal era.
1.
RELIGIOUS THEMES
The Miskin's late-sixteenth-century Noah Ark's painting was chosen as an example of religious themes in Mughal art (Figure 1). This painting was painted in opaque watercolour and gold on paper. The overall Dimensions for it is H x W: 28.1 x 15.6 cm. It is stored in Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Collection. This painting is an example of "high," not "folk," culture (Metcalf, 1995, 960). Prophets are God's messengers who come from time to time to guide humanity to God's path of righteousness. Prophet Noah was among the many who came as guides and warners to the people. God appointed Noah as the Prophet for his people to guide them to the right path. We were told by The Holy Quran about the story of Prophet Noah and his people in a number of Surahs, namely sura (Nuh), sura (Hud), and sura (al-Mu'minun). It tells us about the firm belief that the Prophet had in God and about the final doom of those who ignored the divine message. Commanding Prophet Noah to warn his people, God said: "Warn your people before there comes upon them a grievous penalty." (Holy Qur'an, 71:1).
The Prophet takes on a new meaning in a new cultural world. The powerful image of the Prophet is deeply enriched in the Mughal context through the combination of assimilation and resistance that takes shape in creative expressions such as these (Metcalf, 1995, 960). If we read a little about the artist, we will discover that Miskin is not a Muslim, so what prompted him to paint such a religious topic in a secular court during the rule of Akbar? It appears that Noah is visually a representation of the king, especially his depiction of him as having a halo and seated with advisers (Behl, 1995, 230). He is the central figure not only for humans but for creatures in general. The king is bound to his subjects by oaths of protection and obedience. Thus it turns out that the painting represents the type of modern political system.
The
Indian artist succeeded in portraying
people and animals realistically, but it was flat and reductive, and he did not focus
on details. This is influenced by
Islamic thought and belief, which does
not tend to realistic diagnosis and
tends to abstraction and reduction
because the subject of the painting is
originally religious.
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| Figure (1) Miskin, Noah Ark, 1570s–ca. 1604, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 28.1 x 15.6 cm, Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Collection. |
The
general scene evokes a sense of majesty
and dread, as it is an mythical subject borrowed from the stories of the
Qur'an, representing the story of Noah
and the Flood. The whole scene is
influenced by the meanings of Islam, but
its details are taken directly from the
Indian environment: from the distinct
Indian appearance of the people’s
clothing
and the colour of their brown skin. The
Mughal character is also evident in terms
of the distribution of the figures who are realistically painted. The scene, in
general, gives us a sense of movement,
imposed by the nature of the subject,
which is originally derived from
inherited cultural traditions. The sky
and other shapes are painted in
realistic colours, and with some shadows and linear perspectives which appear to set
the style apart from the Persian miniature tradition from which it derives. A flock
of birds appears in the upper part of
the painting, and these features are
influenced by European art, due to the
Mughal emperors' encouragement to
European art by Mughal artists (Welch,
1978, 56). Flocks of birds in the
distance would seem to be introduced in
Mughal painting under Akbar (Paodi, 2010, 5).
2.
ARCHITECTURAL THEMES
I
chose Madhav Khord Akbar supervises the
building of Fatehpur Sikri painting (ca.
1590-95) from the Mughal dynasty period
(Figure 2). The illustration shows Akbar
overseeing the city's construction. In light of the famous religious innovations and new forms of governance he introduced, Akbar was what Tusi would call the Possessor of
the Law. The Possessor of the Law is one
who can innovate and invent novel ways
to govern. The city was designed to
ingrain his ethos into everyday material
experience and fulfill the conditions of
“A Virtuous City” as described by Plato
for his subjects.
The overall theme is realistically drawn from the Indian environment. It is noticeable that there are no European influences in this painting, in addition to the fact that Islamic influences appeared in the form of simplification, especially in architecture. We see that Emperor Akbar stands at the top of the painting. This indicates that the main subject of this painting revolves around the emperor. He is dressed in an elegant Indian garb, indicating the majesty of the imperial court. In contrast, the rest of the characters are distributed throughout the painting and overlapping levels. In this painting, it seems that the artist has moved away from the use of the linear perspective and instead uses the superposition of forms for symbolic purposes. The effect of class ineq uality is reflected in this painting. A clear difference appears between the clothes of the emperor and his entourage and the clothes of the workers from the poor class.
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| Figure (2) Composition by Tulsi, painting by Bandi, Akbar inspecting the construction of Fathpur, Folio from the Akbarnama, c. 1590-95, Ink, opaque water color and gold on paper, 37,6 x 24,3 cm,Victoria and Albert Museum, London. |
Furthermore, there are two women dressed in clothes with no bright colours in the lower right. Instead, they are depicted wearing long monochromatic dresses and long white shawls on their heads. The ruler and his courtiers were painted watching the workers. Moderately well-dressed supervisors and builders are shown working side by side with barely-dressed workers. Beside Akbar and his entourage, the young bull-leader, a builder and supervisor, is shown along with a character about to pick up a two-man material-carrying device wearing black pointed slippers (McClary, 2018, 225).
3.
GENDER THEMES
I
chose Govardhan Shah Shuja with a
Beloved because it inclues a rare instance of woman as the subject in Mughal art. The depiction of the Mughal woman herself
was against social norms, as she was not
supposed to appear in society. The
portrayal of the men depicted
individually and given solid figures is
offset by the women drawn with repetitive
features and bodies. Combining Indian visual techniques with Persian traditions. Women in
paintings were not as common before the
Jahangir period. What made it popular was the powerful influence of Noor Jahan.
Royal ladies lived in separate quarters
called 'Zenana' or 'Harem.' The
depiction of Mughal women developed from
a mixture of Indian, Persian, and
European models, and Rajput, Mughal and European
women can be identified by their
different features and clothing
(Lavanya, 2016, 1665).
In this painting, the overall theme is romantic. We see Prince Shuja, the second son of Shah Jahan, and his love for the Persian princess, the daughter of Mirza Rostam, a Safavid man of the Mughal court. The painting consists of two people, the prince and the maid. The painting shows several influences from the pre-Islamic Indian culture, which was very concerned with describing love stories. The use of linear perspective shows how the Mughal artist was inspired by European art, especially in thebackground of the picture in which depth appears through the blue gradient until it reaches a very light sky colour. We also find the influences of the Indian environment evident through Indian costumes, bright colours, and local Indian faces. One of the essential features of depicting women in Mughal paintings is that the anatomy and details of the face and body are not accurately shown. The painting is dominated by the girl and the young man in the centre who stand facing each other. In no other genre are women allowed to take up so much space in artistic compositions, in contrast for example to the previous painting, where the two women are depicted in the margins and with very little detail.
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Figure (3) Painting by Govardhan, Shah Shuja with a Beloved, ca. 1596–1645, Ink, opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 38,69 x 26 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art. |
Although the scene depicts a love story, it is not depicted vulgarly or immorally. Nude human bodies do not appear, as was customary in presenting themes of love in the Indian heritage. The painting is modest and straightforward, and they are standing on the green grass. This was influenced by the interaction of Indian art with Islamic art, which distances itself from contempt and promotes high moral values.
4.
POWER THEMES
The
quantity, quality and extent of Mughal
painting declined during the reign of
Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb was not interested, in large part because the painting did not fit
his vision of the future. Aurangzeb
hoped to transform the Mughal Empire
into a powerful orthodox Muslim state.
Instead of subsidizing painting,
Aurangzeb patronized the books of
Islamic law and the repair and maintenance of mosques (Ziad, 2002, 178).
I
chose Bichitr Aurangzeb seated on a
golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar (circa 1660) (Figure 4) because it depicts
the royality with power in the Mughal
court. The dignified emperor holds a
hawk while seated on an elegantly
unpretentious gold throne beneath a
canopy adorned with birds of paradise.
His third son, Muhammad A'zam, who was
born in 1653, stands facing him, looking
very boyish and lively in contrast to
the formality of the others (Welch. 1978, 112). Aurangzeb is shown surrounded by a halo, like his father, seated on a
covered throne in the center of the
composition, holding in his hand a
predatory falcon.
The scene generally shows the grandeur of the imperial court. This is evident from the round golden Halo that the painter surrounded the head of the emperor, who was seated on a small bed resembling a throne. In addition to the elegance of the clothes and theluxury of the recliner on which he sits, feathers, pillows and other adornments. Being surrounded by the entourage who stand at his service and look at him as if they seek his approval is a glorification of the emperor derived from their ancient beliefs.
The
influence of the Indian environment is
evident through the Indian faces, bright
colours and local costumes. Also, various floral and geometric motifs appear
anchored on the tent's roof under which
the emperor and his entourage sheltered.
The emperor and his entourage wear
clothes elaborately decorated with red
flowers which match the splendor of
decorations on the emperor's bed. The emperor holds a white bird, perhaps
a symbol of the purity of the emperor's
origin as well as his strength and
greatness.
The
artist took care to show the details of the
face, drawing the beards with a pointed end, and drawing the decorated headdress. The artist succeeded in his colour treatments, so the colours are harmonious, which
displays skill and ingenuity in
colouring. Also, he painted the
background of the painting as purely
blue, in harmony with the colours in the
foreground.
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| Figure (4) Painting by Bichitr, Aurangzeb seated on a golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar, ca. 1660, Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum. Harvard University Art Museums. Cambridge. |
CONCLUSION
In
the result, the following points
summarize our observations. In the result, the following points summarize our observations. Firstly, Mughal art was affected by the hot environment, and the people's skin was brown. ِAlso, The
colours that were used in the paintings
were hot colours, such as red and
orange, and this is reflected in the hot
environment in which the Mughals lived.
In addition to the environment, The
Mughals are a people who love bright
colours, so this influenced Indian
paintings which were full of bright
colours.
Secondly,
the policy of the Mughal rulers tended
to be grandeur and focus on the power of
the emperor. The impact of this was
reflected on the Mughal painting, as the rulers appeared surrounded by manifestations of luxury and extravagance. The effect of grandeur was evident in Figures (2) &
(4). Figure (2) depicts Akbar overseeing
the construction of his legendary city
and his authority over his people.
Figure (4) depicts Aurangzeb sitting on
his ornate throne, surrounded by his
retinue and servants. He holds in his
hands the falcon humiliated for
greatness and strength.
Thirdly,
another theme in Mughal art is the
Islamic theme. This effect was evident
in Figure (1) which depicts the Prophet Noah and his ark. Mughal art was influenced
by Islamic stories. In addition, These
paintings acquired some of the
characteristics of Islamic art by
introducing Islamic motifs into some
paintings. Furthermore, Paintings
inspired by the Holy Qur'an were drawn to prove the Mughal emperors' affiliation
with the Islamic religion.
Forthly, the Mughal continued to take some of their ancient legacies derived from their legends. This appeared in the embodiment of the famous love themes. This is what we have clearly seen in Figure (3) through the painting depicting Shah Shuja with his lover.
Finaly,
Most of their paintings were propaganda
for the rulers because the art of
painting in the Mughal era was produced
under the patronage and guidance of rulers interested in the arts. They found it an excellent way to document their deeds
and heroism. Furthermore, Mughal art
was influenced by European art in the
seventeenth century, gaining some of its
characteristics, including the use of
shadows and light and the use of linear
perspective.
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