Mughal Painting: Themes and Influences during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries

 Hala Qasqas

 Seminar in the Arts of Mughal India

Intruduction

This paper is concerned with analyzing  the intellectual and structural influences that  resulted in differents elements of Mughal  painting in India during the seventeenth and  sixteenth centuries. The human body  constitutes a universal, fundamental and  socio-cultural point of reference for artistic  expression in Mughal art. In the Indian  subcontinent, the human body has always  been the subject of representations, even for  non-human subjects through innovative strategies such as anthropomorphism,  morphology, and personification which are  potent tools of metaphysical articulation.  Therefore, I have selected four paintings as  samples of these strategies, which artistically  have a greater expression than speech,  language, or writing (Gonzale, 2015, 152).  By analyzing the four paintings selected for  this research paper, we will notice that the  human being is central both to the visual  composition of the painting as well as the  story which it represents. 

In general, the Mughal artists' approach to  the subject is purely documentary. Their  novels do not evoke religious sentiments, and  thus their paintings remain descriptive visual  narratives. In general, the Mughal school of  the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was  never intended to display the ideology or  philosophy of a caste, cult, or dogma. This  made it decidedly secular (Verma, 2000,  513). Nevertheless, we can notice some  paintings with a religious character, whether  through the theme, such as paintings of the  Islamic theme, or influences, such as  paintings containing influences from the  Christian religion.

When discussing the originality, themes and influences of Mughal painting, it is easy  to see a parallel in the issue of originality in  Mughal culture as a whole. Mughal culture  displays a mixture of Persian and Indian  elements and later European influences.  However, it is noticeable that the paintings  painted in the era of Akbar were almost  original and distinct from the previous eras.  In other words, its culture is as original as it  expresses its character. At the same time, we  must realize that this new style did not fully  develop in Akbar's own time. One of Akbar's  painters rarely produced any work of  fundamental importance because they were  occupied mainly with imitating Persian  mannerisms. Mughal painting as an  independent style belongs to the 17th  century, not the 16th century. The true  Mughal style developed very rapidly after  about 1600 AD. The term "Indo-Persian"  only correctly applies to the early Mughal  style: it does not correctly describe late  Mughal work (Coomaraswamy, 1910, 875). 

The characteristic of artistic discourse in  the seventeenth century denotes a life of  luxury and prosperity. In the painting focused  on the events of the imperial court, realism prevailed and proportions were controlled  with complete accuracy. The use of shadows,  light, linear perspective and realistic colour  backgrounds were also widespread. The  Mughal artist seems determined to focus on  the details of each particular subject. Trees,  hills, birds, animals, and buildings are  introduced to accentuate the landscape, but  the focus of the is on the camp assistants,  ordinary people and attendees following the  king. It is clear that the complexity of the  composition for each painting depends on thenarrative of each individual artist, as well as  dealing with other artistic elements, i.e.,  space and time, balance and rhythm, and  other aspects (Verma, 2016, 388). 

This paper will analyze four Mughal  paintings chosen according to their different  themes of religion, architecture, leisure, and  power, which consequently encompass the  many diverse activities that made up  everyday life in the Mughal era. After all, art  is the attempt by humans to portray their own  life experiences and perspectives in  permanent form. Although, as is clear from  these samples, the majority of Mughal art  deals with the secular subject matter, the first  painting, Noah's Ark (circa the late 1570s–ca.  1604), shows a religious perspective of the  world and is a beautiful expression of the  Mughal interest in religious matters. The  second painting is by Bandi, and depicts  Akbar inspecting the construction of  Fatehpur (c. 1590-95). The third painting is  by Govardhan, and depicts Shah Shuja with a  Beloved, (ca. 1596–1645). This painting  shows the bold presence of women through  the Mughal painting, who are rarely seen in  the leisure paintings in Mughal art. The  fourth painting is by Bichitr, and shows  Aurangzeb seated on a golden throne holding  a hawk to depict the power of that era.  Therefore, I will address a question: Did most  Mughal paintings follow a specific theme, as  we note that most themes were about leisure  in the Mughal Emperor court, or is there a  diversity of themes from different  influences? This is what I will try to highlight  in this paper. My objective is to study the  most common themes of Mughal art between  the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as  represented by these four paintings in the  Islamic Mughal era.

1. RELIGIOUS THEMES 

The Miskin's late-sixteenth-century Noah  Ark's painting was chosen as an example of  religious themes in Mughal art (Figure 1).  This painting was painted in opaque  watercolour and gold on paper. The overall  Dimensions for it is H x W: 28.1 x 15.6 cm.  It is stored in Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur  M. Sackler Gallery Collection. This painting  is an example of "high," not "folk," culture  (Metcalf, 1995, 960). Prophets are God's  messengers who come from time to time to  guide humanity to God's path of  righteousness. Prophet Noah was among the  many who came as guides and warners to the  people. God appointed Noah as the Prophet  for his people to guide them to the right path. We were told by The Holy Quran about the  story of Prophet Noah and his people in a  number of Surahs, namely sura (Nuh), sura  (Hud), and sura (al-Mu'minun). It tells us  about the firm belief that the Prophet had in  God and about the final doom of those who ignored the divine message. Commanding  Prophet Noah to warn his people, God said:  "Warn your people before there comes upon  them a grievous penalty." (Holy Qur'an,  71:1). 

The Prophet takes on a new meaning in a  new cultural world. The powerful image of  the Prophet is deeply enriched in the Mughal  context through the combination of  assimilation and resistance that takes shape in  creative expressions such as these (Metcalf,  1995, 960). If we read a little about the artist,  we will discover that Miskin is not a Muslim,  so what prompted him to paint such a  religious topic in a secular court during the  rule of Akbar? It appears that Noah is  visually a representation of the king,  especially his depiction of him as having a  halo and seated with advisers (Behl, 1995,  230). He is the central figure not only for  humans but for creatures in general. The king  is bound to his subjects by oaths of protection  and obedience. Thus it turns out that the  painting represents the type of modern  political system.

The Indian artist succeeded in portraying  people and animals realistically, but it was  flat and reductive, and he did not focus on  details. This is influenced by Islamic thought  and belief, which does not tend to realistic  diagnosis and tends to abstraction and  reduction because the subject of the painting  is originally religious. 

Figure (1) Miskin, Noah Ark, 1570s–ca. 1604, opaque  watercolor and gold on paper, 28.1 x 15.6 cm, Freer  Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery  Collection.

The general scene evokes a sense of  majesty and dread, as it is an mythical subject borrowed from the stories of the Qur'an,  representing the story of Noah and the Flood.  The whole scene is influenced by the  meanings of Islam, but its details are taken  directly from the Indian environment: from  the distinct Indian appearance of the people’s 

clothing and the colour of their brown skin.  The Mughal character is also evident in terms  of the distribution of the figures who are  realistically painted. The scene, in general,  gives us a sense of movement, imposed by the  nature of the subject, which is originally  derived from inherited cultural traditions.  The sky and other shapes are painted in  realistic colours, and with some shadows and  linear perspectives which appear to set the  style apart from the Persian miniature  tradition from which it derives. A flock of  birds appears in the upper part of the painting,  and these features are influenced by  European art, due to the Mughal emperors'  encouragement to European art by Mughal  artists (Welch, 1978, 56). Flocks of birds in  the distance would seem to be introduced in  Mughal painting under Akbar (Paodi, 2010,  5). 

2. ARCHITECTURAL THEMES

I chose Madhav Khord Akbar supervises  the building of Fatehpur Sikri painting (ca.  1590-95) from the Mughal dynasty period  (Figure 2). The illustration shows Akbar  overseeing the city's construction. In light of  the famous religious innovations and new  forms of governance he introduced, Akbar  was what Tusi would call the Possessor of the  Law. The Possessor of the Law is one who  can innovate and invent novel ways to  govern. The city was designed to ingrain his  ethos into everyday material experience and  fulfill the conditions of “A Virtuous City” as  described by Plato for his subjects. 

The overall theme is realistically drawn  from the Indian environment. It is noticeable  that there are no European influences in this  painting, in addition to the fact that Islamic  influences appeared in the form of  simplification, especially in architecture. We  see that Emperor Akbar stands at the top of  the painting. This indicates that the main  subject of this painting revolves around the emperor. He is dressed in an elegant Indian  garb, indicating the majesty of the imperial  court. In contrast, the rest of the characters  are distributed throughout the painting and  overlapping levels. In this painting, it seems  that the artist has moved away from the use  of the linear perspective and instead uses the  superposition of forms for symbolic  purposes. The effect of class ineq uality is  reflected in this painting. A clear difference  appears between the clothes of the emperor  and his entourage and the clothes of the  workers from the poor class.

Figure (2) Composition by Tulsi, painting by Bandi,  Akbar inspecting the construction of Fathpur, Folio  from the Akbarnama, c. 1590-95, Ink, opaque water  color and gold on paper, 37,6 x 24,3 cm,Victoria and  Albert Museum, London.

Furthermore, there are two women  dressed in clothes with no bright colours in  the lower right. Instead, they are depicted wearing long monochromatic dresses and  long white shawls on their heads. The ruler  and his courtiers were painted watching the  workers. Moderately well-dressed  supervisors and builders are shown working  side by side with barely-dressed workers.  Beside Akbar and his entourage, the young  bull-leader, a builder and supervisor, is  shown along with a character about to pick up  a two-man material-carrying device wearing  black pointed slippers (McClary, 2018, 225). 

3. GENDER THEMES

I chose Govardhan Shah Shuja with a  Beloved because it inclues a rare instance of  woman as the subject in Mughal art. The  depiction of the Mughal woman herself was  against social norms, as she was not supposed  to appear in society. The portrayal of the men  depicted individually and given solid figures  is offset by the women drawn with repetitive  features and bodies. Combining Indian visual  techniques with Persian traditions. Women in paintings were not as common before the  Jahangir period. What made it popular was  the powerful influence of Noor Jahan. Royal  ladies lived in separate quarters called  'Zenana' or 'Harem.' The depiction of Mughal  women developed from a mixture of Indian,  Persian, and European models, and Rajput,  Mughal and European women can be  identified by their different features and  clothing (Lavanya, 2016, 1665). 

In this painting, the overall theme is  romantic. We see Prince Shuja, the second  son of Shah Jahan, and his love for the  Persian princess, the daughter of Mirza  Rostam, a Safavid man of the Mughal court.  The painting consists of two people, the  prince and the maid. The painting shows several influences from the pre-Islamic  Indian culture, which was very concerned  with describing love stories. The use of linear  perspective shows how the Mughal artist was  inspired by European art, especially in thebackground of the picture in which depth appears through the blue gradient until it  reaches a very light sky colour. We also find  the influences of the Indian environment  evident through Indian costumes, bright  colours, and local Indian faces. One of the  essential features of depicting women in  Mughal paintings is that the anatomy and  details of the face and body are not accurately  shown. The painting is dominated by the girl  and the young man in the centre who stand facing each other. In no other genre are  women allowed to take up so much space in  artistic compositions, in contrast for example  to the previous painting, where the two  women are depicted in the margins and with  very little detail. 

Figure (3) Painting by Govardhan, Shah Shuja with a  Beloved, ca. 1596–1645, Ink, opaque watercolor and  gold on paper, 38,69 x 26 cm, Metropolitan Museum  of Art. 

Although the scene depicts a love story, it  is not depicted vulgarly or immorally. Nude  human bodies do not appear, as was  customary in presenting themes of love in the  Indian heritage. The painting is modest and  straightforward, and they are standing on the  green grass. This was influenced by the  interaction of Indian art with Islamic art,  which distances itself from contempt and  promotes high moral values.

4. POWER THEMES

The quantity, quality and extent of  Mughal painting declined during the reign of  Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb was not interested, in  large part because the painting did not fit his  vision of the future. Aurangzeb hoped to  transform the Mughal Empire into a powerful  orthodox Muslim state. Instead of subsidizing  painting, Aurangzeb patronized the books of  Islamic law and the repair and maintenance  of mosques (Ziad, 2002, 178).  

I chose Bichitr Aurangzeb seated on a  golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar  (circa 1660) (Figure 4) because it depicts the  royality with power in the Mughal court. The  dignified emperor holds a hawk while seated  on an elegantly unpretentious gold throne  beneath a canopy adorned with birds of  paradise. His third son, Muhammad A'zam,  who was born in 1653, stands facing him,  looking very boyish and lively in contrast to  the formality of the others (Welch. 1978,  112). Aurangzeb is shown surrounded by a  halo, like his father, seated on a covered  throne in the center of the composition,  holding in his hand a predatory falcon. 

The scene generally shows the grandeur  of the imperial court. This is evident from the  round golden Halo that the painter  surrounded the head of the emperor, who was  seated on a small bed resembling a throne. In  addition to the elegance of the clothes and theluxury of the recliner on which he sits,  feathers, pillows and other adornments.  Being surrounded by the entourage who stand  at his service and look at him as if they seek  his approval is a glorification of the emperor derived from their ancient beliefs.

The influence of the Indian environment  is evident through the Indian faces, bright  colours and local costumes. Also, various  floral and geometric motifs appear anchored  on the tent's roof under which the emperor  and his entourage sheltered. The emperor and  his entourage wear clothes elaborately  decorated with red flowers which match the  splendor of decorations on the emperor's bed. The emperor holds a white bird, perhaps a  symbol of the purity of the emperor's origin  as well as his strength and greatness. 

The artist took care to show the details of the  face, drawing the beards with a pointed end,  and drawing the decorated headdress. The  artist succeeded in his colour treatments, so  the colours are harmonious, which displays  skill and ingenuity in colouring. Also, he  painted the background of the painting as  purely blue, in harmony with the colours in  the foreground. 

Figure (4) Painting by Bichitr, Aurangzeb seated on a  golden throne holding a Hawk in the Durbar, ca. 1660, Courtesy of the Arthur M. Sackler Museum. Harvard  University Art Museums. Cambridge. 

CONCLUSION

In the result, the following points  summarize our observations. In the result, the  following points summarize our  observations. Firstly, Mughal art was  affected by the hot environment, and the  people's skin was brown. ِAlso, The colours  that were used in the paintings were hot  colours, such as red and orange, and this is  reflected in the hot environment in which the  Mughals lived. In addition to the  environment, The Mughals are a people  who love bright colours, so this influenced  Indian paintings which were full of bright  colours. 

Secondly, the policy of the Mughal  rulers tended to be grandeur and focus on the  power of the emperor. The impact of this was  reflected on the Mughal painting, as the rulers  appeared surrounded by manifestations of  luxury and extravagance. The effect of  grandeur was evident in Figures (2) & (4).  Figure (2) depicts Akbar overseeing the  construction of his legendary city and his  authority over his people. Figure (4) depicts  Aurangzeb sitting on his ornate throne,  surrounded by his retinue and servants. He  holds in his hands the falcon humiliated for  greatness and strength.

Thirdly, another theme in Mughal art  is the Islamic theme. This effect was evident  in Figure (1) which depicts the Prophet Noah  and his ark. Mughal art was influenced by  Islamic stories. In addition, These paintings  acquired some of the characteristics of  Islamic art by introducing Islamic motifs into  some paintings. Furthermore, Paintings  inspired by the Holy Qur'an were drawn to  prove the Mughal emperors' affiliation with  the Islamic religion.

Forthly, the Mughal continued to take  some of their ancient legacies derived from their legends. This appeared in the  embodiment of the famous love themes. This  is what we have clearly seen in Figure (3)  through the painting depicting Shah Shuja  with his lover.

Finaly, Most of their paintings were  propaganda for the rulers because the art of  painting in the Mughal era was produced  under the patronage and guidance of rulers  interested in the arts. They found it an  excellent way to document their deeds and  heroism. Furthermore, Mughal art was  influenced by European art in the seventeenth  century, gaining some of its characteristics,  including the use of shadows and light and  the use of linear perspective.

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