UGC
Approved Journal No. 48416 Impact Factor : 2.314 Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary
Research, Vol. 4, No. 5,Ocrtober-November, 2017 ISSN : 2393-8358
Rajiv Mandal
Ph.D. Research Scholar, School of Art and Design, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
Professor Yang Xian
Yi
School of Art and Design, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
Associate Professor Wang Mei Yan
School
of Art and Design, Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
Abstract
Going through the cities of Delhi, Agra, Jaipur, Mumbai, Calcutta and towards southern part of India, you find many beautiful buildings. Some are monuments, palaces temples, churches, mosques and memorials. Many of them had their foundation before Christ and many after the coming of Christ. Many generations have been a part of this architecture which stands mighty and lofty reminding us of that glorious past which has been ours. This is because art and architecture forms an important part of Indian culture. Many distinctive features that we find in the architecture today developed throughout the long period of Indian history. The earliest and most remarkable evidence of Indian architecture is found in the cities of the Harappan Civilization which boast of a unique town planning. In the post Harappan period architectural styles have been classified as Hindu, Buddhist and J ain. The medieval period saw the synthesis of Persian and indigenous styles of architecture. Thereafter the colonial period brought the influence of Western architectural forms of India. Thus Indian architecture is a synthesis of indigenous styles and external influences which has lent it a unique characteristic of its own.
Keyword: Harappa,
Dravida, Mauryan, Chola, Chalukya, Architecture, Hindu, Buddhist, Islam, Stupa,
Tomb, Mosque, Mughals, Persian,
Indo-Islamic influence, Indo-Persian technique, Garden.
Brief
History of Indian Architecture
Architecture
is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to
built his own shelter to live in. Man
first began to create and fix his own shelter when he stepped out from the natural habits of dense jungle covers. With
the artistic faculties of man awakened in the search of larger and better – sheltered spaces, he began to
built, with inherent aesthetic sense, sheltered that seemed pleasing to the eye. Thus emerged
architecture which is a combination of needs, imagination, capacities of the builders and capabilities of workers.
Architecture accommodated the local and regional cultural traditions and social
requirements, economic prosperity, religious practice of different times.
Hence, the study of architecture reveals
to us the cultural diversities and helps us understand the rich traditions
of India.
Indian
architecture evolves in various different parts and regions of the country.
Apart from these natural and obvious
evolutions from the pre – historic periods, evolution of Indian architecture
was generally effected by many great and
important historic developments. Naturally, the emergence and decay of great empires and dynasties in the
sub – continent, each in their way influenced the growth and shaped the nature of Indian architecture and
so has the influence of different regions of the country. Let us have a look at the process of evaluation
of Indian Architecture.
 |
| Lord Vishnu and Goddess Laxhmi, Sculpture, Love Scene, Hindu Vishnu Temple, Ellora, 6th to 8th Century CE |
The
architecture of India is rooted in its history, culture and religion. Indian
architecture progressed with time and
assimilated the many influences that came as a result of India’s global discourse with other regions of the world
throughout its millennia – old past. The earliest buildings anyone knows of form India are from
Mehragahr, from about 7000BC. But the first real stone architecture dates to about 2500 BC, in the
Harappan period in northern India (modern Pakistan). The Harappans built big cities, with walls around
them and public baths and warehouses and paved streets. But when Harrapan civilization collapsed,
about 2000 BC, almost two thousand years went by before anybody in India built a big stone building
again.
When
Indian architects did begin to build big buildings again, 250 BC, at first they
built them of wood. Nobody in India knew
how to built big stone buildings so they wouldn’t fall down. Architects started by building solid stone buildings,
basically mounds of dirt covered with brick or stone like the earlier ziggurats in West Asia and the
pyramids in Egypt or Peru. People called these buildings Stupas. Soon after, about 200 BC, architects began to
carve Buddhist temples into the sides of cliffs, so they were taking away stone
instead of building with stone. This is easier, so it was a good place to
start. But under the Gupta empire, about
350 AD, Indian architects finally began to built stone temples. These were mainly Hindu temples. Between 350 and 1000
AD, architects built better and better stone temples, especially in southern India, while in
northern India they kept on cutting more temples into the side of cliffs, at Ellora and Elephanta. Slowly
Indian architects got better building temples. Around 500 AD, architects began to use mortals to hold the
stones together. Temples got columns around them, and towers over them. About 1000 AD, Indian
architects began to replace wood beams with iron beams. When Abbasid invaders came to India about
1100 AD, most people in northern India converted to Islam, so Indian architects built a lot of Islamic
mosques, often re – using pieces of destroyed Hindu temples to show that they had defeated Hinduism. But in
southern India, people went right on building bigger Hindu temples with fancier sculptures carved on
them.
History
of Indian architecture can be categorised into ancient, medieval and modern. It
begins with the past that dates back to
2500 BC. which is the era of the Indus valley civilization. A number of foreign invasions and indigenous factors have
contributed to the modification of the architecture of India and the last being after the colonizers
invaded India. The ancient period dates till the Gupta dynasty. The medieval era deals with the advent of the
Muslim architecture till the colonization. The colonial architecture falls under modern architecture
of India.
 |
Kailasa Temple, Ellora, 6th to 8th century CE. |
With
the invention of the Aryans, the Dravidians were pushed down in the south. So
the majority of the architecture of
the Dravidians is found in the south Indian states
of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. Considering the
backgrounds of these Aryans, it is nor surprising that the architecture of the
Vedic period was neither monumental nor permanent nor concentrated
in urban development. With the disappearance of Indus culture
and its cities, the Indo – Aryan population was largely distributed in small
settlements located in the plains and forests. Wood, bamboo and thatch were being used as building materials.
This
method of construction in bamboo and
thatch was participated by the
Dravidians long before the intrusion of
the northern invaders. The epic
of Ramayana and the Mahabharata were written in this period which refers to the architectural monuments like
shrines, tombs and palaces. In south India a number of rock cut tombs of the Vedic Period have found at
Mennapuram and Calicut in Malabar. The architecture of the Aryans is referred to as the Nagara style
architecture. The architecture of the epic period inspired the later Hindu and Buddhist architecture.
The
invasion of Alexander the great marked the foundation of the Mauryan Empire.
There is an evident western impact in
the buildings and palaces of this era. The excavations of Pataliputra
revealed that at one time it was
completely surrounded by massive poles of teak beams held together by iron dowels which represent the extraordinary craftsmanship.
Buddhisn was the dominant religious force
during this era. The major architecture of this period is based on
Buddhist thought for examples the Stupas
at Sanchi, monolithic rail at Sarnath and pillars of Bodh Gaya. The
architectural carving of the face of the
Lomas Rishi cave is completely Indian.
Early
Historical Period of Architecture
An
important phase of Indian architecture began with the Mauryan period. The
material prosperity of the Mauryans and
a new religious consciousness led to achievements in all fields. Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador of Selucas
Nikator who visited the Mauryan court described
Chandragupta Maurya’s palace as an excellent architectural achievement.
It was a large palace carved out of
wood. In the Mauryan period (322 – 182 BC) especially under Ashoka architecture
saw a great advancement. Mauryan art and
architecture depicted the influence of Persians and Greeks. During the reign of Ashoka many monolithic stone pillars
were erected on which teachings of ‘Dhamma’ ‘Dharma’ were inscribed. The highly
polished pillars with animal figures adorning the top (capitals) are unique
and remarkable. The lion capital of
Sarnath pillar has been accepted as the emblem of the Indian Republic. Each
pillar weighs about 50 tonnes and is about 50ft high.
The
stupas of Sanchi and Sarnath are symbols of the achievement of mauryan
architecture. The gateways of the Sanchi
Stupa with the beautiful sculpture depicting scenes from Jataka stories are specimens of the skill and aesthetic sense of
the artisans. The blending of Greek and Indian art led to the development of Gandhara art which developed
later. The other schools of art and architecture were the indigenous Mathura school and Amravati
schools especially after first century AD under the influence of the Kushanas. Under the Gandhara School of
art life – like statues of Buddha and Bodhisattavas were made in the likeness of Greek gods even,
though the ideas, inspirations and subjects were all Indians. Rich ornaments, costumes drapery were used to
impart physical beauty. The sculptures were in stone, terracotta, cement like material and
clay.
Architecture
under the Kushanas is characterised with the use of ivory and imported glass.
The architectural monuments like the
stupas and monasteries of this era is adorned with relief friezes carved in dark schist, portraying figures in
classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies. The reliefs of Yaksha’s carved in this period are more
sensuous and erotic than those at Sanchi. The stupa in Gandhara marks the gradual elaboration of the
primitive types known at Sanchi and Bharhut. This elaboration takes the form of the all – over sculptural
ornamentation of base, drum, and hemispherical dome. The most famous stupa in Gandhara, a veritable
Buddhist wonder of the world, was the great tower raised by king Kanishka in Pashawar. Whereas the figures of
the Mathura school were made of spotted red stone. They had more of spiritual look in them. Here
along with Budda we find sculptures of Jaina deities also. The Amravati school developed under the patronage
of the Satvahanas of the Andhra region. A great stupa was built at Amravati in
the Lower Godavari region. The walls of the stupa are adorned with bas
relief, had curved medallion and
decorative panels. Nagarjunakonda is another place that is famous for Buddhist architecture.
 |
| Visvakarma Cave |
Both
Hindu and Buddhist architecture flourished
under the reign of the Gupta
dynasty. In the Gupta period the Chaitya hall makes its appearance as a free
standing temples of permanent materials. The temples at
Chezarla, built entirely of bricks, is in reality a chapel of modest
proportions measuring approximately twenty three feet in
length by nine in width. The facade of the building presents the
characteristic chaitya arch from the rock cut chaitya halls
which at one time probably depicted a Buddhist subject in
relief. Among the characteristic of Gupta temple architecture is
the flat roof with spouts to drain off rain water. The Vishnu temple
at Deogarh is an example of architecture of Gupta
dynasty. Thus architecture during the Guptas was all about
extensive details and sophisticated ornamentations. Architecture
of the Gupta period continued under Pala and Sena rulers.
In the monasteries of Nalanda depicts
the Gupta architectural style. The Mahabodhi shrine and the ruins of Paharpur
in Bengal are also the architectural evidence of the Pala
and Sena period. Down in the south the
great period of Dravidian structure
culminated under the Chola dynasty, which became paramount
in power over all India as far north as the Ganges. The ruler of the Chola
dynasty were mainly devotee of Lord
Shiva and the architectural monument of this period are mainly temples
dedicated to Lord Shiva. The
Rajarajeshwara temple is one hundred and eighty feet long and has a tower
rising one hundred and ninety feet in
the air. The elevation comprises a pyramidal structure rising from a square base about fifty feet high and surmounted by a
domical finial. It has an impressive tower the form of which is that of the Dravidian sikhara. The
architecture of Vijayanagar consisted of group of small structures rather than single large temples.
The final chapter of Dravidian architecture is the building activity of the Nayak dynasty, of kings who
were established with their capital at Madurai in the seventeenth century. The temples of this last
Dravidian dynasty, exemplified by the shrine at
Tiruvannamalai and the Great Temple at Madurai are distinguished first
of all by a great expansion of the temple precienct. The architecture under the
Chalukya dynasty is south India comprises temples of Pattadakal, Aihole and Badami. Religions like
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism influenced the
architectural patterns of these temples.
 |
| Humayun Tomb, Nizamuddin, New Delhi. The tomb was commissioned by Humayun's first wife and chief consort, Empress Bega Begum (also known as Haji Begum), in 1569-70. |
The
cave temples of Badami has plain exterior but extremely beautifully carved
interior. The reign of western Chalukyas
was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture.
Their architecture served as an abstract connection between the Badami Chalukya
architecture of 8th century and the architecture of Hoysalas popularised in
the 13th century. The towers over the temple attract attention for its elaborate carvings
and ornamentation. Among the architecture of the
Hoysalas the most notable are the Chennakasava temple at Belur, the temples
at Arasikere and Belavadi, and the Hoysaleswara
temple at Halebidu. The development of cave architecture is
another unique feature and marks an important
phase in the history of Indian architecture.
More than thousands caves have been excavated
between second century BC and tenth century AD. Famous among these were Ajanta and Ellora caves of
Maharashtra, and Udaigiri cave of Orissa. These caves hold Buddhist viharas,
chailyas as well as mandapas and pillared temples of Hindu gods and
goddesses. Medieval Period of
Architecture (Mughals)
You
would be surprised to know that the starting from the Harappan civilization,
(also known as Indus – Saraswati
Civilization by some historians), India has had a very long history of town
planning, which can be traced back to
2350 BC. as we know, the two cities of Harappan and Mohenjo-Daro had an elaborate drainage system, roads which cut
each other at right angles, a citadel which was built on a high ground and in the lower parts lived the rest
of the population. Kalibangam in Rajasthan and Surkoda in Kutch had similar
city structure. From 600 BC. onwards, we come across more town and cities that
were associated with Aryan as well as
Dravidian civilization. These were Rajgir, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Hastinapur, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Kapilvastu and
Kausambhi besides many others. We also come across many towns in the Mauryan period as Janapadas
(small towns) and Mahajanapadas (big towns).
With
the coming of the Muslims to India, the scene changed. Islamic influence became
evident in the towns. Mosques, forts and
palaces now dotted the urban scene. According to Abul Fazal, there were 2,837 towns in 1594 AD. This was mainly
because many large villages were transformed into smaller towns which came to be called qasbas.
These qasbas soon came to be occupied by local artisans and crafts persons, who started specializing
in their chosen craft, for example leather works and marble in Agra. Sind specialized in cotton textiles,
silk etc, while Gujarat excelled in the art of weaving, gold and silk threads and made brocades that were
often exported to other countries.
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| The Tomb of Akbar the Great is an important Mughal architectural masterpiece, built 1605–1613, set in 48 Ha (119 acres) of grounds in Sikandra, a suburb of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. |
With
the arrival of Turks during the thirteenth century came a new technique of
architecture – the architectural styles of Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. The
engineering features of these buildings
were the domes, arches and minarets. The palaces, mosques and tombs
built by the rulers had these features
which were blended with the features of the indigenous architecture and a mew
synthesis in architecture was achieved.
This happens because the Turkish rulers of Delhi utilizes the services of
the local Indian craftsmen who were very
skilful and had already constructed beautiful buildings. In the buildings that came up we find the simplicity
of the Islamic structure as well as the detailed sculptures and designs they made on their own indigenous
structures. A middle path was followed in all their designs in the architecture of this
period.
The
earlier building of this period is Quwwatul Islam Mosque at Delhi and the Qutub
Minar. The latter is a tower, whose
height is 70 meters. It is a tapering tower that has five stories. There
are beautiful engravings of calligraphy
both in the mosque and on the tower. Many other buildings were later constructed by the Sultans. Ala-ud-din Khalji
enlarged the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque and built a gateway to the enclosure of the mosque. This gateway
is called the Alahi Darwaja and is one of the most beautiful
architectural
designs even today. Decorative elements were used to make the building
outstanding in its beauty. He also built
the Hauz Khas in Delhi which was a hydraulic structure. The tomb of the Mohammad Tughlaq, Firoz Tughlaq and the fort
of Tughlaqabad are some examples. Though their
buildings were not beautiful but had very strong walls, massive as well
as impressive. During the Afghan rule
the tombs of Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi and Shershah’s tomb at Sasaram were built.
The architecture of this period also shows how indigenous styles were adopted
and utilised by the builders. During these years, the Turks were still in the
process of settling down. The rulers were threatened by the Mongols, who
made sudden invasions from the north. This is why the buildings of this period
are strong, sturdy and practical. With the establishment of regional
kingdoms in Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan, beautiful buildings having
their shaking towers at Ahmadabad are a
few examples of this architecture of
this architecture. In Mandu (central
India) the Jama Masjid, Hindola Mahal,and Jahaz Mahal were built. In
the Deccan, the Sultans erected a number of buildings. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, the Madarsa of
Mahmud Gawan at Bidar, Ibrahim Rauza, Gol Gumbaz has the largest dome in the world. All these
buildings vary in design and style from the buildings of north India. In Bengal the oblong shape of many structure
and the peculiar style of roof construction were some of the distinctive features of the
regional architecture of Bengal like the Adsina mosque and the tomb of Jallal-ud-din at Pandua, Khil Darwaza
and Tantipara mosque at Gaur. In Jaunpur, the Atala mosque build by the Sharqui rulers gad a
gigantic screen covering the dome while the tomb of Hoshang Shah at Malwa is made entirely of marble and
is made of yellow and black marble inlay work beautifully done by craftsmen.
The rulers of Vijayanagara, an empire which was established during this period
also erected many beautiful buildings and temples and had a number of
achievements to their credit. Though only ruins remain but the temples of
Vithalswami and Hazar Rama at Hampi are good examples. The Bahamani sultans borrowed from the styles
of Persia, Turkey and the temples of Southern
India. The Jama Masjid at Gulbarga is quite well known. The courtyard of
this mosque is covered with a large number of domes and is the only mosque in
India which has a covered courtyard. The
advent of the Mughals brought a new era in architecture. The synthesis
of style which began earlier reached its zenith during this time. The architecture
of Mughal style started during Akbar’s rule. The first building of
this rule was Humayun’s tomb at Delhi. In this magnificent building red stone
was used. It has a main gateway and the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden.
Many consider it a precursor of Taj
Mahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. The Buland Darwaza
reflects the grandeur of the mighty Mughal Empire. This building is made of following Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41m high and is perhaps
the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Salim Shisti, Palace of
Jadha Bai, Ibadat Khana, Birbal’s house
and other buildings at Fatehpur Sikri reflect a synthesis of Persian and
Indian elements. During the reign of
Jahangir, Akbar’s Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of Itimad-d-daula
which was built entirely of marble. Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst the Mughals. He used marble
extensively. Decorative design in inlay work, (called pietra duro) beautiful arches and minarets
were the features of his buildings. The Red Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all the Taj Mahal
are some of the buildings built by Shahjahan. The Taj Mahal, the tomb of Shahjahan’s wife, is built
in marble and reflects all the architectural features that were developed during the Mughal period. It
has a central dome, four elegant minarets, gateway, inlay work and gardens surrounding the main
buildings of the later period. The buildings showed a strong influence of the ancient Indian style and had
courtyards and pillars. For the first time in the architecture of this style living beings-elephants, lions,
peacocks and other birds were sculptured in the brackets.
From
1526, the Mughal architecture gave a totally different dimension to tomb
building. These are built on platforms
and are surrounded by gardens laid out with ornamental fountains. A famous example is the mosque at Fatehpur Sikri –
three domes of 190 feet by 470 feet and with two royal tombs. Another famous tomb is Akbars tomb in
Sikandra (AD. 1593 - 1613). The Taj Mahal, Agra (AD. 1630) built by Shahjahan is considered one of the
‘Wonder of the World’. It is a royal tomb in marble built on a platform18 feet high and 313 feet square.
Each corner is marked by the minarets 133 feet high. The central dome is 89 feet high and 58 feet in
diameter. Marble id inlaid with semi precious stones like jasper and agate. It stands by the bank of
the river Yamuna in the middle of the marble terraces, fountains and lakes flanked by cypress trees. Mughal
architecture declined with the failing political power of the Mughal Empire.
A
unique architectural development in the Mughal time was the beautiful gardens
developed around the tombs and other
buildings. The Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir and Lahore were developed by Jahangir and Shajahan respectively. The
Mughals encouraged cultural and architectural growth of India. Conclusion: The
history of Indian architecture and sculpture is as old as the civilization of
Indus Valley. Starting from the Harappan
Civilization, Indian has had a very long history of town planning, which
can be traced back to 2350 BC.
Architecture holds the key to the understanding of the cultural diversity
of any part of India as it is influenced
by the cultural traditions and religious practices of different times. Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism helped in the
development of early architectural style of India in building stupas, viharas and chaityas. During
the time of Gupta, Pallavas and Cholas temple architecture flourished. The history of medieval Indian
architecture commences with the invasion of the Delhi Sultanates. Delhi Sultanate and Mughals
brought with them Persian influence and we witness an Indo – Persian (Indo -
Islamic) style of architecture. The architecture of these Muslim invaders was
quite similar to the indigenous architecture
for instance both temples and mosque had open courtyards in front of them.
The
Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. He erected many important
buildings. The crowning achievements of
his reign was the building of his new capital city of Fatehpur Sikri, 40 km from Agra. Fatehpur Sikri is a romance of
stones. The Arch of the Buland Darwaza is the most imposing gateway in the world. The tomb of Saint Salim
Chisti is exquisite in its beauty. Jodha Bai Palace is a fine example of ancient Indian architecture. The
Jama Masjid was built with the influence of Persian style. The Dewan-i-Aman and
the Dewan-i-Khas are famous for their planning and decoration. The Ibadat Khana and Panch Mahal are other notable
buildings. The Panch Mahal is a pyramidal structure in five storeys. It was built on the pattern of a
Buddhist Vihara.
References
:
1.
Amina Okada, Indian Miniatures of the Mughal Court, Harry. N. Abrams, New York,
1992. 2. Indian Culture and Heritage, NIOS Press, Delhi,
3.
J.C. Harle, The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edition.
Yale University Press Pelican History of
Art, 1994.
4.
Partha Mitter, Indian Art, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2001.
5.
Rhoads Murphey, 2006, A History of Asia, Pearson Education press, Inc., New
York, 2006.