Cemil Kutlutürk
Ankara
University, Ankara, Turkey
The
period of Akbar‟s rule (1556-1605) has been regarded as one of the most
significant and incomparable periods in
Indian history in particular regarding with Hindu Muslim interaction. Indeed,
Akbar‟s success stemmed from his
religious policy that based on Sulh-i Kul (universal peace and harmony)
between all his subjects regardless with
their social, ethical or religious identities. His religious policy was
not a sudden event, rather emerged from in the
course of time depending on different internal and external factors. The
final stage of Akbar‟s religious policy, the
Din-i Ilahi (Religion of God), was a syncretic religious movement
propounded by him in 1582 A.D., was one of the
most substantial dimensions of mutual interaction and relationship
between Hinduism and Islam. The primary aim
of this paper, therefore, is to examine the factors influencing Akbar‟s
religious policy and to analyze critically
Akbar‟s Din-i Ilahi by dealing with its basic features and virtues which
more or less shaped his attitudes towards
other religious and social groups.
Keywords:
Akbar, religious policy, Din-i Ilahi, Hindu-Muslim Interaction, the Medieval
India
Introduction
After
the arrival of Muslim traders in India in the seventh and eighth centuries,
interactions and interrelations between
Muslims and Hindus have been commenced. In fact the earliest accounts of
encounters between Arab Muslims and
South Asian Hindus demonstrate a wide range of interactions and mutual
relations. Up to today, Muslims and
Hindus in many places and times shaped communities in which there were commercial issues, places of collective
worship, shared political and economic institutions, and other forms of exchange such as intermarriages. On the other
hand, it is clear that at times the interactions have been contentious and violent, yet without
understanding the full range of encounters, it is not easy to make sense
of either the dissension or the
cooperation that compose the fullness of history.
As
the historical documents approved the Hindu Muslim relations improved and took
many forms during the Mughal/Gurkani1
period (1526-1857). Certain rulers were quite open not to employing and
strategically allying with one another
but to pursuing deeper engagement and comprehending at the regional, imperial
as well as religious level. Such an
attitude taken by competent rulers in a measure can be seen as relevant to benefits of dynasty. When both imperial
sources and historical records that have been kept by not only Muslims but other adherents belong to different religious
traditions, are examined, many samples of intimate interest and genuine
attempts can be found (Mahmud, 1949, pp. 31-39). One of the most famous model
of such interest and tolerance to other
religions is the third Gurkani ruler Akbar, who not only spoke local languages
but also was a master of Hindu poets
writing in the Indic language of Brajbhasha, which was, along with Persian, the
literary language of north India during
his period (Busch, 2010, p. 274).
Abu‟l
Fath Jalal-al-Din Muhammad Akbar, commonly known as Akbar I, literally „The
Great‟, was the son of Nasiruddin
Humayun whom he succeeded as ruler of the Gurkani dynasty in India from 1556 to
1605 (Smith, 1917). He, as a strong
personality and a notable ruler, gradually enlarged his empire to include Afghanistan and nearly the entire Indian
peninsula. To unify the vast empire as well as to protect peace and order in a culturally and religiously diverse
state, he adopted a distinctive political and religious policy. Akbar first to establish his control over the
scattered land then weld his collection of different states, different
races and different religions into a
whole. For achieving this aim, Akbar firstly improved a religious policy and
did his best socio-cultural reforms. Akbar‟s
religious policy basically based on the doctrine of Sulh-i Kul which means universal peace as well as tolerance
for every individual. His religious policy did not discriminate other religions and focused on the ideas of peace,
unity and tolerance. Akbar accepted all his subject equal regardless with their religious identities and cultural
backgrounds. Akbar considered himself the ruler of all of his subjects, including Muslims, Hindus, and followers of
other faiths. For this purpose, he firstly fulfilled various significant implements regarding with
religious social, imperial and political issues which had an important
role in the development of his religious
policy and thoughts (Rizvi, 1975, p. 409).
Factors
Influencing Akbar’s Religious Policy
The development Akbar‟s religious policy in the course of time was a result of his interaction with not only Muslim society but other religious groups as well as local eminent leaders and rulers. In this context, the religious policy of Akbar was one of the most liberal exponent of the policy of toleration among all Muslim ruler in India. However, his religious views wet through a process of slow evaluation and was effected by internal and external factors. From his childhood, Akbar had come in contact with Islam and in particular Sufism. On the other hand he was educated by some scholars who were the follower of Shia tradition. Akbar‟s childhood tutors, who included two Irani Shias, made an important contribution to Akbar‟s later inclination towards religious tolerance. Akbar from his early age, therefore, exposed to Sufism and Shia doctrines (Habib, 1997, p. 81).
Akbar‟s
Rajput views and his contact with Hinduism, on the other hand, made an
impression on his imaginative mind.
Meanwhile, the bhakti movement had created a new atmosphere in India. As a
result of this movement, a great deal of
rulers in various parts of India adopted a more liberal policy of religious
tolerance, attempting to set up communal
harmony between Hindus and Muslim from the beginning of fifteenth century. These liberation and quality songs sung by
the teachers and popular gurus of the bhakti movement such as Guru Nanak, Kabir and Chaitanya. This outstanding
and effective ideas of bhakti leaders have also impacted on development of Akbar‟s religious attitudes
towards others (Chandra, 2007, p. 253). Moreover, in the process of improvement of his religious discourses and
ideas other religious traditions and their imminent leaders such as Christian missioners and Jainist monks had an
important role (Siddique, 2001, p. 109). Therefore, in order to comprehend his unique religious policy, which
possesses some important stages like the Din-i Ilahi, and to carry out a critical evaluation on his
religious policy the factors impacted on his mind should be firstly analyzed.
The
Impact of Muslim Ulamas and Shias
It
is known that Akbar, whose parents were follower of the Sunni Hanefi way of
Islam (Habib, 1997, p. 80), was firstly
effected by his religious environment and background. In particular the
attitudes of narrow minded as well as
world seeking Muslim ulamas had an important role to shape of his religious
mind and policy. His early days were
spent in the backdrop of an atmosphere in which liberal sentiments were encouraged and religious narrow-mindedness
was frowned upon (Chandra, 2007, p. 253).
One
of the most significance Islamic leader of that time, Imam Sirhindi, states
also that the world seeking ulama of the
reign of Akbar were greatly responsible for misleading Akbar from „sirat-i
mustaqim‟ which means the true and right
path. According to him, their intention was to attain worldly power, prestige
and honor from the people and ruler of
time (Ahmad Sirhindi, Maktub No. I/3).
Being
dissatisfied with the world seeking and narrow minded ulama, Akbar turned his
face towards the spiritual leaders of
his age. However, in his time except a few models almost all Sufis were
effected by doctrine of unityism, namely
“wahdatu-l wujud” (unity of existence). The defenders of this philosophy
damaged the essence of Islam by arguing
different views against the Quran and Hadiths. Akbar voluntarily or not
influenced by this kind of so called
ulamas and often he discussed with them like Shaikh Tajuddin, regarding
Sufism lonely at nights. For instance,
Shaikh Tajuddin due to his idea of „wahdatu-l wujud‟, accepted that to
prostrate before Akbar was nothing but
prostrating Allah (Badauni, II/259). Furthermore, such an idea also impacted
on Akbar‟s views that is „to worship Allah,
there are many ways and the foundation of each religion is on the truth‟ which is one of the main features of
the Din-i Ilahi movement (Hussain, 1957, p. 57).
On
the fulfillments of this kind of Sufis, Imam-i Sirhindi mentions that most of
the ignorant Sufis of this period were
like the world seeking ulama, their contaminating misdeeds had been contagious
(Ahmad Sirhindi, Maktub No. I/47). Thus
it is clear that influence of so-called spiritual Sufi leaders became a chief
cause of the weakening the faith of
Akbar in the commands of Islam. With reference to status of true, orthodox and
sincere Muslim ulamas in the court,
mostly their voices and valuable explanations about religious issues was
mostly ignored and their power
diminished. Most of them were alienated by those who planned to weak their
impacts on Akbar and society. As a
result of such an attitude the real Muslim ulama, like Shaikh Badr ud Din, had
to leave the court (Badauni,
II/212).
As
a member of Sunni Muslim tradition through his family Akbar observed the
external forms of Sunni faith for a
length of time. But in particular his meeting with the liberal views of Shaikh
Mubarek and his two sons Faidi and Abul
Fadl, was also another important effective factors on the embodiment of Akbar‟s
religious policy. Through Shaikh Mubarak, Akbar concentrating all powers,
temporal and spiritual, into his hand and
regarded as „imam-i adil‟ just king, and supreme authority in all
respects (Brown, 1930, 4/18).
Shaikh
Mubarak and his sons Abul Fadl and Faidi all were a very clever and members of
Shia community. Abul Fadl in particular,
had intimacy with Hakim Abul Fath and Mulla Muhammad Yazdi, who were
strong Shia by faith (Badauni, II/263).
The writer of Muntakhabut Tawarikh indicates that Mulla Muhammad Yazdi in his speeches in the court emphasizes on Shias
doctrines by ignoring and accusing “Ahl-i Sunnah wel-Jama‟at”
as
despicable. Through their views the importance of “wahiy” (revelation to
Prophet Muhammad) and basic Islamic
beliefs such as faith in observance of five time prayers and the fasts of
Ramadan was shaken. Just the reason,
thus, was accepted by these Shia thinkers as the alone basis of religious by
excluding revelation (Badauni, II/211).
It
is clear that under the influence of Shaikh Mubarak and his sons Akbar cut the
root of Islam. It is understood from the
historical sources that specially due to his influence of Abul Fadl, was one of
the famous learned persons of India,
Akbar was deviated from the right path of Islam in some respects. On the one
side the power of ulama was completely
shatter and on the other, same new beliefs which were against the code of Islam became so rampant (Siddique, 2001, p.
96).
Impacts
of Other Religous Groups
Akbar‟s
a special inclination and sympathy for the society of various social identities
such as Hindus, Cayinist, Buddhists and
Christians as well as a close interaction and association with religious
leaders like Brahmins, missionaries,
monks and priests was one of the other important factor on the development
of Akbar‟s religious policy, the Din-i
Ilahi, of which main character was based on a huge tolerance to all kinds
of religious systems (Badauni,
II/161).
Akbar
come into close contact with Hinduism because of his regular meetings and
discussions with Hindu leaders. Thus he
impressed by their strong philosophical solution on topics like nature of man,
creation of world and existence of god
and then he ordered to translate Hindu religious literature and history into
Persian.2 Akbar‟s deeply intimacy with Hindus, especially with Raja Birbal and
some converted Hindus like Bhavon played
a significant role to mislead him from the orthodox way of Islam (Badauni,
II/257).
As
cited in the Aini-i Akbari due to frank interaction with the both Hindus and
Hindu-minded Muslims, Akbar was
influenced theory of “samsara” (transmigration) which was the main religious
doctrine of all Indian religions (Abul
Fadl, 1948, III/303). By the impact of „bhakti‟ thinkers, who particularly
emphasized on devotion on Hindu gods
like Rama and Krishna, Akbar was also appreciated the value of Hindu gods and
goddess. He made some coins in which pictures
of Ram and Sita were engraved (Aslam, 1969, p. 119). Besides it is stated
in the historical sources that once
Akbar in a marriage ceremony observed some rites which were customary
among the Hindus (Badauni, II/341). Due
to such practices which were observed by Akbar, some prominent Brahmins acknowledged Akbar as an important figure and
even an incarnation of god due to his implements for the welfare of both Hindus as well as Hindu
religion. To reinforce their views on Akbar Brahmin utilized from some Sanskrit verses in which he was depicted
as a hero (Badauni, II/324-25; Busch, 2010).
Akbar‟s
religious policy based on not only respect all people but lovely attitude
towards all kinds of existence including
animals and planets and so on. In this regard along with Hindu religion Akbar
was also influenced by Jainist doctrines
like “ahimsa” which teaches principle of non-violence that is cause no
injury and do no harm any living entity
(Unto, 1979). Akbar firstly met with Jains in Agra where became a great center for them during the sixteenth century.
Later on, after his marriage with the princes of Ambar, he obtained more opportunity to meet and know
about Jain beliefs and tradition (Ashirabadi, 1962, p. 262). Being influenced by Jain monks and teachers like
Hiravijaya Suri, Akbar abandoned eating meat, garlic and onion for himself (Ashirabadi, 1962, p. 265).3Therefore
it is clear that Akbar‟s removing of meat and the prohibition of injury to animal life, were basically because
of the influence of Jain thoughts (Prasad, 1974, p. 372).
In
the process of evaluation of Akbar‟s religious policy, in particular
declaration of the Din-i Ilahi, his
inviting the Christian missionaries to his court and discussion with
them had played a dominant role. From A.D.
1580 to A.D. 1605, they came from Goa to the imperial court, in the hope
of conceiving the emperor, to introduce
Christian religion in his domain. Akbar like other religious groups granted for
such missionaries interviews, treated
them with kindness and showed interest in their religious doctrines and
explanations (Prasad, 1974, p.
301).
Even
though the missionaries could not achieve their real purpose fully, it is not
difficult to assert that Akbar was
effected by their ideas to a great extent. It is evident from the historical
records that as a result of Christian impact,
Akbar commenced to interrogate the Quran and Prophet in some aspects. Specially
some scholars declare that Akbar‟s new
discourse there is no God but Allah; Akbar is the Caliph of Allah‟ and the using of the statement of „in the name of
Jesus Christ‟ instead of “in the name of Allah, the Kind, the Merciful” in
Parsian Gospel translation was a result of Cristian influence (Badauni,
II/269-314).
From
the reports of some Christians who lived at the time of Akbar it is understood
that under the reign of Akbar the using
of names of Prophet of Islam like Ahmad, Muhammad and Mustafa was diminished
and the role of Prophet in the
development of Islam was critically discussed like Christians did in their
theological fields. Beside this such
historical data demonstrate that some place where sacred and valuable in the
side of Islam were damaged or destroyed
(Makligon, 1932, p. 48) which state also cited by Imami Sirhindi in his letters (Ahmad Sirhindi, Maktub No.
II/92).
Apart
from the Christianity impact, the other important reason for Akbar‟s abjuring
Islam was his marriages with ladies or
daughters of Rajput rulers. To treat well the Rajputs, Akbar followed some
Hindu customs like forbidden of cows,
giving of “darshan” (vision) to his subjects and observing some Hindu
festivals as well as ceremonies along
with the Rajput women. Therefore, it is clear that, even though Akbar
firstly planned to preserve and
strengthen his vast state by connecting with Hindu Rajputs through their ladies
or daughters, he was naturally
influenced by these Rajput spouses which lead to practice some Hindu ethos and
to break away from essence of Islam
(Nadwi, 1982, IV/101). Hence the emergence of Akbar‟s unique religious policy based on the principle of tolerance
and respect to every each soul and particularly declaration of the Din-i Ilahi was not a sudden decision or
development. It came out step by step in the course of time by influencing from Islamic and mostly
non-Islamic factors which were dealt with above. Here to comprehend Akbar‟s Din-i Ilahi, some earlier basic
stages of his religious policy should be examined.
Basic
Stages of Akbar’s Religious Policy
The
close interaction with Muslim environment and other religious and political
leaders influenced on Akbar‟s political and social attitudes towards all his
subjects. This process also shaped his religious views to others. It means the religious conditions of
India at the end of the sixteenth century, in which Akbar lived as a strong figure among people of the peninsula,
had an important role in this process. The emergence of Akbar‟s religious policy, therefore, was not the
sudden outbreak of an idea. Its growth was spread over the years. Akbar‟s religious policy could be divided
into four stages which are respectively opposing to some traditional practices, “Ibadat Khana” (house of worship,
gathering for searching/realization of the Truth), “Mahzar” (the infallibility decree) and “Din-i İlahi”
(religion of God). Before the analyzing of the Din-i Ilahi, main aspects and features of the earlier stages should be
stated to understand Akbar‟s progressing religious mind in the course of time.
Akbar
in order to gain supports of other religious and social groups asserted newly
ideas and enforced some innovations in both religious and imperial fields. He
gave up some traditional Islamic implements
committed by either Muslim rulers or theologians on non-Muslims. For
instance, Akbar took the most
revolutionary step in 1564 by granting religious freedom to Hindus by
abolishing „jaziya‟, which was a poll tax,
charged from the Hindus in their capacity as “zimmis” (Rizvi, 1975, p.
69). He also removed all restrictions on
the construction and maintenance of Hindu temples, churches and other
places of worship. Akbar did not
discriminate between individuals on the basis of religion or caste
instead, he wished to become an impartial rule
to whom all people, Hindus as well as Muslims, respected (Rizvi, 1975,
p. 156). Such kinds of fulfillments
carried out by Akbar should also be regarded as a result of impacts of
internal and external factors on Akbar‟s
mind.
Akbar
implemented his religious policy that depends on tolerance and peace, by means
of performing different innovations or
commitments. He believed that misunderstanding and ignorance in matters of
religion caused to discords and
conflicts. After evaluating his both socio-cultural and religious-philosophical
accumulation, Akbar desired to understand the principles of his religious
ideas. On the other hand, driven by a
strong desire for truth and knowledge, passionately interested in the
mystery of the relation between God and
man, he promoted at his court religious debates on a very large ground.
From this point of view, he erected a
building at Fatahpur Sikri, early in 1575, entitled “Ibadat Khana”
(house of worship), in which regular religious
discussions were held on Thursdays evenings (Abul Fadl,
III/113-119).
In
Akbarname the explaining of emperor on building of the “Ibadat Khana” was cited
as fallows:
I
have organized this “majlis” (gathering) for this aim only that the facts of
every religion, whether Hindu or Muslim,
be brought out in the open. The closed hearts of our (religious) leaders
and scholars be opened so that the Muslims should come to know (essentially) who they are.
Because most of them unfortunately are unaware about their religion...
(Abul Fadl, Akbarname; Rezavi, 2008, p.
197).
When
building “imarat” (complex) was completed in 1576 (Badauni, II/200), in the
earlier stages discussions and
assemblies were confined to Muslim theologians then Shia ulamas also were
included. However, such weekly meetings
were interrupted at times and they were regularly resumed in 1578. It is regarded that after this date, 1578 onward,
theologians of many faiths and sects attended in the “Ibadat Khana” discussions
(Rizvi, 1975, pp. 125-28).
Sunnis
and Shias Muslim, Christian, Jainist and Hindu theologians who assembled
together in the „Ibadat Khana‟,
discussed the rational and traditional methods of discourse, travel and
histories and each others prophecies in
here. They expanded the field and scope of discussion by arguing their
different religious and social thoughts.
In this process each of them not only intent to testify his own argument or assertion
but demanded to the propagation of his
school, tradition or sect in which he grew up (Syed, 2011, p. 406). In
this sense it is understood that main
object of emperor‟s was to search the truth and reliable and reasonable knowledge.
As
a result of religious discourse or disputations held at the “Ibadat Khana”, not
only Akbar‟s belief in the orthodox
Sunni Islam declined but the value of orthodox Sunni mullahs (local Muslim
clerics or leaders) who were holding
predominant position in the state politics, was lowered. Along with the
discussions in the „Ibadat Khana‟, some
issues developed in this time, in particular close relationship with Shias,
Akbar concluded that
their
authority also should be decreased. The first step toward curbing the power of
the ulama, he abolished the “waiz” (the head priest) of the Jami Masjid at
Fatehpur Sikri and mounted himself as the pulpit. Then read the “khutba”, a religious sermon given on Friday
prayers in the masjids by imam, in his own name (Badauni, II/268; Nizamuddin, 1936, p. 342). Akbar went ahead
with his plans to reduce the power of the mullahs in the state politics, even though the they criticized or
rejected his attitudes (Majumder, 1949, p. 452; Siddique, 2001, pp. 78-79).4
This
attempts led to a proclamation, called the “Mahzar” in September 1579. It was
prepared by Sheikh Mubarak, and signed
by almost all the prominent Muslim theologians. It recognized Akbar in his
capacity as the just monarch, to be the
“imam-i-adil” (supreme or final interpreter of Islamic law). The “Mahzar”
declared Akbar to be higher in rank than
the “mujtahids” (the interpreters of Islamic law) (Rizvi, 1975, p. 155). According to some scholars like Mehta (1984)
declaration of the „Mahzar‟ did not enable to a religious power to offer a new religious law. Hence Akbar was
not permitted by the „Mahzar‟ to violate the fundamental principles of Islam.
In
the process of approval of the “Mahzar”, Shaikh Mubarak and his sons have
possessed an effective role. Therefore
in this process the Shia ideas have mostly influenced Akbar‟s mind. Shias,
under the cover of the so-called
infallibility decree, established Akbar as “imam-i adil” (Badauni, II/271-2). 5
In other words according to the
infallibility decree, Shaikh Mubarak regarded Akbar as the supreme or final
interpreter of Islamic law. It is not
forgotten here that according to Shia faith, in presence of a caliph, it is
possible to be an Imam. The real intention
of Shaikh Mubarak by declaration of the “Mahzar”, was to make Akbar as
“imam-i adil” and thereby to establish
him as a supreme head of all Muslim world and in all respects (Aslam, 1969, p. 106). Consequently the infallibility
decree had also played an important role in the development of Akbar‟s religious policy and specially declaration of
the Din-i Ilahi.
Din-i
Ilahi and Its Basic Features
The
appear of the Din-i Ilahi should be regarded as the final stage of Akbar‟s
religious policy. In other words the
first three dominant stages have led to reveal of the Din-i Ilahi. Along with
Akbar‟s earlier stages of religious
policy which mentioned above, his perception and thought on Islam must be
considered to carry out a proper
assessment on the Din-i Ilahi. At the time of Akbar‟s reign there was a strong
negative discourse about Islam. In this
context some eminent people of that time argued that Islam with its own entire
aspects was not a valid religion until
the day of judgment. As Badauni writes: “According to Majesty, it was settled
fact that the one thousand years since
the time of the mission of the Prophet, which was to be the period of the
continuance of the faith of Islam, were
now completed, which he treated in his heart” (Badauni, II/327). After
persuading with this idea, it was not so
difficult to Akbar to change and design ordinances of Islam. The outcome of
his deliberations was the Din-i Ilahi in
the beginning of 1582 (Siddique, 2001, p. 115).
The
term “Din-i Ilahi” was used by Badauni in connection with a declaration which
Mirza Jani Beg, ruler of Tattha, was
said to have signed as follows: “I, so and so, do voluntarily, liberate and
dissociate myself from traditional and imitative Islam which I have seen my
fathers practice and heard from the speak about, and attend the Din-i Ilahi of Akbar acknowledging
the four degrees of devotion, which are the sacrifice of property, life, honor and religion” (Badauni, II/304).
On account of this declaration, scholars have put forward different explanations and comments. Mostly it is
accepted that this declaration signed by governor of Tattha does not
refer
to refusing of Islam in all its phases. On the contrary it particularly
emphasizes on liberation and
disassociation from traditional and imitative Islam (Rizvi, 1975, p.
392). Though Akbar started to conceiving
his orthodox noble to abandon “taqlid” but it also do not ignore that in
this process he at times damaged to
essence of Islam and undervalued some essential Islamic values.
The
disciples, member of the Din-i Ilahi movement called also as “illahias”, were
also required to sign a same contract of
which general frame was shaped by earlier declaration assigned by Mirza
(Badauni, II/314). On the other hand
Akbar used to accept disciples to his faith with a formula of testimony that
“there is no God but God, Akbar is the
vicegerent of God” (Badauni, II/273). It is understood from Badauni‟s writings
that due to fear of public controversy
its use was restricted to a few people in the court (Ibid). Even though
some scholars like, Siddique (2001)
comments such a point as “the disciples cited this formula only in Akbar‟s presence” (p. 406), it is, however, clear
that such a new formula did not approve by the large community.
One
of the other basic implement of disciples of the Din-i Ilahi was greeting each
other with the words like “Allahu Akbar
and Jalle Jalaluhu” (exalted be his glory) on seeing each other (Badauni,
II/356). This rule is intended to keep
and to remember the God in mind in every time and to remind men to think of the
origin of their existence. Another
distinguishing feature of this movement that each disciple of the Din-i Ilahi
should prepare a dinner during his
lifetime. This rule differed from the classical Muslim and Hindu customs
according to which such a dinner
generally would have had to organize after a person‟s death. Beside this each
member is to give a party on the
anniversary of his birthday, and bestow alms in order to prepare provisions for
his next life. The struggle to abstain
from eating meat was another outstanding rule of members of the Din-i Ilahi.
In this sense disciples should not
benefited from the same vessels used by fishermen, bird-catchers and
butchers. They should not also live together
with pregnant, old, and barren women; nor with girls under the age of puberty (Abul Fadl, I/110; Blochmann, 1939,
pp. 175-176). This kind of rules and accounts mentioned above demonstrate that disciples were not initiated
indiscriminately, and that there was strict checking before access to this religious structure.
According
to Mehta (1984), the Din-i Ilahi was a social religious association of the
like-minded intellectuals who had
transcended the barriers their orthodox religious beliefs and practices. As a
result of his religious policy Akbar
never compelled anybody to adopt this movement although it would not be
difficult for him to do so. It is also
clearly mentioned in the rapport of Abul Fadl. According to him the total
number of the member of the Din-i Ilahi
was not so much. On the other hand it is known that this religious movement
could not attract the masses and it
ended with the death of Akbar (Rizvi, 1795).
The
principles of the Din-i Ilahi was indirectly mentioned in Dabistan-i
Mazahib.6In the book this chapter
entitled as „Ilahiya Beliefs‟ was divided into four sections. Second
section deals with a huge religious
discussions between Sunnis and Shias as well as other religious groups
such as Jews, Christians and Hindus held
in the presence of Akbar. However, there is not enough evident whether this
kind of discussions concerned are the
“Ibadat Khana” debates. End of the a long discussions between religious leaders
it is concluded that salvation is to be
achieved only by the knowledge of Truth and by fallowing the precepts of the
“Great Namus”, i.e. reason (Rizvi, 1975,
pp. 411-12). Renunciation and non-attachment of the world; avoiding from lust
and sensuality; refraining from
adultery, deceit, oppression, unethical traits, intimidation, foolishness; and emancipation from punishment of the hereafter
and doubts about the Truth are all dependent upon obeying the ten virtues. After giving this crucial
remembrance the ten virtues of the Din-i Ilahi cited as follows:
(1)
Liberality and beneficence; (2) Forgiveness of the evil doer and repulsion of anger
with mildness; (3) Abstinence from
worldly desires; (4) Care of freedom from the bonds o f the worldly existence
and violence, as well as accumulating
precious stores for the future real and perpetual world; (5) Wisdom and
devotion in the frequent meditation on
the consequences of actions; (6) Strength of dexterous prudence in the desire
of marvelous actions; (7) Soft voice,
gentle words, pleasing speeches for everybody; (8) Good treatment with brethren, so that their will have the
precedence to our own; (9) A perfect alienation from creatures and the material world, and a perfect attachment to
the Supreme Being; and (10) Dedication o f soul in the love o f God and, very close a union with God, the
preserver of all, that as long as the soul may think itself with the
Merciful One until the time of
separation from its worldly body (Dabistan-i Mezahib, 1904, p. 322).7
Akbar‟s
religious policy, in particular the Din-i Ilahi, was based on a universal peace
and religious freedom for his all
subjects regardless of their religious or ethnic identities. While Akbar set
fort the Din-i Ilahi he asserted that
because of lack of religious freedom and tolerance the Din-i Ilahi was
established in this process while Akbar
criticized some Muslim ulama due to their limited understanding about Islam
itself as well as others religious
thoughts. On the other hand he accused Islam arguing that its validity has
already ended and and its tolerance to
all humanity was not so much comprehensive. In this sense Akbar underestimated
the value of Islam in some respects.
However, such a view on Islam was incorrect and it was caused not only because
of limited knowledge on Islam but
influenced mind from other religious systems and traditions. Therefore it should never ignored that this kind of
arguments or humanly discourses on religious freedom and tolerance have already established and mentioned in
Islam.
For
instance, Muhammad (pbuh) describes Muslims in his saying, “A Muslim is he/she
from whose hand and tongue the Muslims
are safe” (Al-Bukhari, Iman, 10). Islam‟s purpose is to make this world a place
where all beings are peacefully
protected. From the Islamic point of view, killing a human being unjustly is as
grave crime as slaying the whole of
humanity (Al-Maidah, 5/32). In Quranic perspective one person‟s life is equal
to the lives of all human beings. Hence,
equally, saving one‟s life is regarded as being same as saving the lives of
all people. Islam, hence, does not
permit war to be undertaken in order to compel people of other religions
to convert to Islam. There is no assert
in Islam to make the entire world completely Muslim. “There shall be no compulsion in acceptance of the religion. The
right course has become clear from the wrong” (Al Baqara, 2/256).
The
basic sources on Akbar‟s Din-i Ilahi often indicate the example of Birbal, a
Hindu voluntarily joined to the Din-i
Ilahi, to demonstrate Akbar‟s religious tolerance and freedom (Lal, 1966, p.
242). Through this specific model it is
suggested that Akbar made no attempt to use the authority of the state to
spread his religion. Despite the fact
that such an attitude verified the indulgence of emperor, it should not be
neglected that this was not a new
foundation or the first fulfillment committed alone by him. As seen above,
tolerance for all human being is one of
the main core principal of Islam and it has already ordered in various verses
of Quran. On the other hand as Siddique
(2001) stated that such a person had played an important role to mislead of
emperor from orthodox Islamic tradition
(p. 97).
Akbar,
probably, became aware of this Islamic principles and values in which he
brought up until the a long year. As the
historical documents revealed, however, Akbar was influenced from Indian culture
and other religious groups more then his
religious background that is Islam. Therefore when he declared his
religious ideas, Akbar at times attempt
to differ from some Islamic concepts that is why he was criticized by many Muslim theologians. Nevertheless by analyzing
virtues of the Din-i Ilahi it is reasonable to declare that indeed Akbar benefited from basic sources of Islam,
Quran and at times Sunnah, when he built his religious thoughts. When he criticized some Muslim ulamas because
of their intolerance and unconsciousness attitudes, Akbar also referenced to “tahqiq” (sincere) belief of
Islam. Even though Akbar introduced some implements against Islam, he continued to hold in high regard many
Islamic institutions and utilized them when he set forth his religious thoughts. Both mutual interaction as well as
close resemblance between Islamic values and Akbar‟s religious ideas, however, were deliberately or not overlooked
by some scholars who had bias or limited knowledge on Islam.
Conclusions
Akbar,
an outstanding emperor of Gurkani dynasty, is considered one of the most
important figure in the field of Hindu
Muslim interaction in medieval period of India. As soon as he came to the
throne, Akbar accepted himself as the
impartial ruler of his all subjects. In this context he managed all the Indian
people irrespective of their castes,
creeds and religious beliefs and practices, into homogeneous society. Hence
his religious policy was based on Sulh-i
Kul, universal peace. Along with Akbar‟s association with Sufis and Shias from beginning of the his early age, his
intimate contact with so many people professing different faiths surely had a great impact on the development of
Akbar‟s imperial and religious policy. His religious policy, therefore, was not suddenly broken out; on the contrary,
it was improved in the process of time.
The
framework of Akbar‟s religious thoughts, particularly the Din-i Ilahi,
formulated by him in end of the
sixteenth century, was depended on eclectic selection and ethical
system. Though the appeal and influence of the Din-i Ilahi were limited and
could not find opportunity to survive after Akbar, as the historical
evidence demonstrate that Akbar‟s
religious movement more or less weakened the power of Islam even for a
limited time and criticized by many
orthodox Muslim theologians. Basic elements of this religious movement
were essentially taken from Islam and
Hinduism, yet some others were also drawn from different religious systems such as Christianity, Zoroastrianism and
Jainism. However, some scholars voluntarily or not neglected the impact of Islam on Akbar‟s social and
religious attitudes towards others without considering the innovative discourses of Islam on religious freedom,
tolerance and equality which were already ordered in the main sources of Islam more than nine hundred years
before Akbar brought up.
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Notes
Cemil
Kutlutürk, Asssistant Professor, Faculty of Divinity, Ankara University; The
Department of Middle Eastern, South Asian,
and African Studies (MESAAS), Columbia University.
1
Hereupon the term “Gurkani” will be used in order to refer the Baburi Dynasty
which was established by Babur in India instead of the term of Mughal or
Mungol. One of the most important historians in this field, Prof. Bayur, have
clearly revealed this reality by
construing first hand sources (Bayur, 1946).
2
As a result of close association with Hindus and translation of some Hindu
sacred texts to Persian or Arabic, Muslims began to obtain some important knowledge on Hindu
religion and their history. This process on one hand enabled to some informed Muslims to discuss with Hindus in a true
manner, on the other caused to reveal a new section among the Muslims who were
called as “muselman hindu ve mizaj”,
Hindu-minded Muslims (Siddique, 2001, p. 97).
3
Non-consumption of this kind of vegetables is one of the unique character of
strict Jains. According to them tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up (Unto,
1979).
4
As a result of such oppressions and unjust implements the true ulama had to
leave the „Ibadat Khana‟. For example Shaikh
Badrud Din, the son of Shaikh Selim Chishti, left the court of Akbar. He
first went to Ajmir and then to Gujrat and ultimately to Makkah (Badauni, II/212).
5
Such an attitude committed by Shaikh Mubarak and his sons was so political and
important. Because during the reign of Babur,
the Caliphate was transferred to the Ottoman Empire and the Sunni
Muslims acknowledged Sultan Selim as Caliph of the Muslim world. In this regard to declare Akbar as
Caliph against Sultan Selim of Turkey was not possible and acceptable at that
time (Siddique, 2001, p. 94).
6
According to Roychoudhry (1941), this is the only book in which the virtues of
the Din-i Ilahi was expressed.
7
Though it is mostly ascribed to Muhsin Fani, the recent studies have been
revealed that the writer of the text is not clear. It is also argued some scholars that in fact this
book seems to have been written by Zulfaqar Ardastani (Rizvi, 1975, p. 39).