Rukhsana Iftikhar*
Department
of History and Pakistan Studies
University
of the Punjab, Lahore
Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization (JITC)
Abstract
Muslim rule in India (1526-1707) is considered a golden chapter in the history of the culture of this region. Muslims established the Mughal Empire in India which was contemporary to the Safavid Empire in Iran. Massive migration to India occurred due to the wealth and grandeur of the Mughal court. Mughals transformed every sphere of the Indian culture. Their Central Asian background created an aroma in the native culture and with the amalgamation of two; Mughals gave new dimensions to Muslim civilization in India. The cultural aura of Mughals affected every sphere of Indian social life. New ways of dining were introduced. Muslims established new industries of clothing and textile. New forms of beautification were launched. Cultural feasts and festivals were regularly celebrated. Music and dance touched the heights of glory. Royal painting studio laid new styles of Indian painting. This culture gave space to every community to become its part. In the visual arts, the adaptation of local modes to the Mughal cultural environment involved a change of their ethos from religious devotion to secular entertainment. This paper focuses on the reinterpretation of Indian culture under the sway of Mughals. Every historian and scholar spells ink on the political and economic aspects of Indian history in medieval times. However, this work analyzes the cultural and social image of Muslim civilization which was developed under the policy of co-existence. Certain aspects of other cultures were also adopted by Mughal rulers under the policy of “Peace for All.”
Keywords:
Hindavi, kornish, langota, taslim, Ulbagcha.
Introduction
India
is the home of ancient civilizations and their mutual blending has resulted in a unique form of culture. The
Arab-Iranian culture introduced by Muslims
was a composite culture. The spread of Islam in South Asia led to the
equality of human beings and revivalists
movements.1 The southern part of India encouraged reformers; many sects arose and tried to
harmonize the teachings of Islam, Hinduism
and other religions of India. This cultural interaction promoted
pluralism, a new language Hindavi was
invented and renowned poet Amir Khusrau used it as the language of his poetry. The influence of
Muslims was also visible in diet, dress, in
ceremonies, festivals and fairs and even on manners and etiquettes. Many
new patterns of culture were introduced,
first of all among the elites and gradually they became part of ordinary people’s life. The
impact of Muslims on Indian culture
showed how Hindus reacted to this culture which was completely different
from their own. Some features of this
culture were remarkable and enhanced the richness of their lives and hence were easily adopted. So, we
can say that the culture of Muslims was
wholly adopted by Hindus but they maintained their own identity as
well.2 Culture has a twofold impact.
Muslims introduced new patterns and they were easily accepted by local communities. Similarly, Muslims were
also influenced by the native culture as
well. In food and drinks and living styles and manner, the locals were
also impressed by the European styles.
Many borrowed something from Mughal dresses, modes of life, vocabulary, behavior and many followed
their own traditional path. May ways of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists were
adapted to the Mughal culture in the Mughal period. Social customs and personal laws still
continued that were under the impression of
religious creeds. Different categories of culture which form a
civilization are discussed below.
2.
Social Manners
Socially,
to address a person with his/her name had never been the trend in India. The individual outlook of a person due
to caste system was very visible. Mutual
respect is the key element of Indian social structure. People were
normally known by their families and it also determined their status in
society. Salām was the usual salutation
among Muslims and it became popular due to the blessings it carried even among the common people. However, the people
of Punjab maintained the style of their
Gurūs to greet each other. The way of greeting in upper classes and lower
classes was different. As Abul Fazal
mentioned that kornish and taslīm were the mode of greetings in the court of the king. Akbar,
the most popular among Mughal kings, also
started the custom of sajdah probably due to the insistence of his
nobles, disciples and courtiers.3 The
Mughal king started the activities of the day with jharoka darshan, the glimpse of the king in the balcony of his
palace in early morning. Mughals were
influenced by the Iranian culture. The worshipping of the sun by King
Akbar with a prostration toward the east
was purely inspired by the Iranian culture. Abul Fazal defined the divine origin of the Mughals from
‘light.’ It became popular as many of
the Hindus considered it auspicious to see the face of king before their
work. This tradition continued during
the Mughal period.
3.
Dresses and Ornamentation
Indian
subcontinent has a hot environment and it is also reflected in their dressing. The Mughal king was very much
conscious about his dressing. King
Humayun launched new dresses known as Ulbagcha.4 Akbar’s aesthetic taste
is highly appreciated by every
historian; he employed workers to enhance the style of his dressing. Father Monserrate commented on the
style sense of Akbar, “his majesty wore
clothes of silk beautifully embroidered in silver and gold. His cloak came
down from his hose and his boots which
covered his ankles. He wore peal and jewelry.”5 The dress of the emperor was
not the dress of the common man. The shirt was used by both upper and middle classes, sometimes long
and sometimes short. There were
different varieties of trousers like lose and tights. Workmen, artisan,
peasants and labor class contented
itself with the use of a cotton sheet which they tied around their waist reaching down to the knees. Babur wrote
in his diary that Indians tie one thing
called langota which is a piece of cloth which hangs below their
navel.”6 The court historian of King
Akbar remarked that men and women in Bengal normally go naked, wearing only one cloth around their loins.7
Mughals introduced some changes in the
dressing of the elite and nobles, such as they used courts and proper
shoes to cover their feet which were
made in royal factories. Mughal dressing had three dominant elements including
Khurasani, Iranian and Persian elements.
Fashion
was the weakness of Mughal women. The most fashionable lady of Mughal times was Noor Jahan, the beloved wife
of Emperor Jahangir. She introduced many
styles of dresses, scarfs and ornaments.8 Several varieties of laces, brocades
and gowns are remembered after her name.
She was the pioneer in using scarf. Muslim
women normally covered their heads. Common women did not have choices in dresses and ornamentation. A piece of cloth
around their bodies which they used to
cover their head with is known as sari even today. They used ornaments
of cheap metals like copper and iron.9
Perfumes were not in common use. Only elites used them. King Akbar created a special department
known as khusbukhana and Shiekh Mansoor
was in charge of this department. They used rose, jasmine and amber in different varieties of perfumes.10 Noor
Jahan’s mother Ismat Bano Begum invented
itr-e-Jahangiri which is so strong that even if a single drop of this
perfume is rubbed on the hand the whole
assembly is scented.11
In
the well-known epic of Padmavati, Malik Muhammad Jaysi gave a detailed description of female toilet. Indian women
used sandal paste or bath, a vermillion on
parting their head, a spangle on their forehead, black lines in their
eyes were visible, and they also wore
ear-rings, nose stud, necklets, armlets, and anklets. These were known together as sixteen graces.12 Men of
that age were in the habit of using rings
and few other ornaments, especially nobles also used necklets. Mughal
political alliances with Rajputs
integrated certain rituals and symbols in their culture, such as Mughal applied tika (vermilion) mark on their
forehead. There were many factories in
Delhi, Agra, Lahore and Allahabad of Mughals which produced all kinds
of ornamentation for royal
consumption.13
4.
Food and Drinks
Cooked
and tasty food was available in capital cities of India like Lahore, Delhi and Agra in those days. Both vegetarian
and non-vegetarian food was always kept
ready for the customers.14 King Akbar took special interest in bakery and
ordered the best material for his kitchen.
Common people used khichari for their daily use. They added pickles on it. Mango-pickle was
the part of North Indian taste before the
advent
of Muslims. Abul Fazal wrote that staple food was in common use. In mornings and evenings, Indians used bajara
and jawar flour kneaded with brown sugar
and water. Hindus were vegetarian and Akbar did not take meat in his diet
in some days of week due to his Hindus
courtiers.15 While drinking water, Hindus were
not allowed to touch the cup/glass with their lips, they directly poured
water in their throats. Table manners
were not common. Indians sat on the floor during their daily meals. Some foods were introduced in the
kitchens of Mughals like kebab, yakhni, and falooda which had Turkish origin
and dampukht was very popular in Central
Asia. King Akbar hired 400 cooks from all over India and Persia.
All the Mughal emperors were in habit of consuming wine and opium equally.16 King Jahangir was the exceptional one who took 20 cups of daily distilled liquor. He took 14 in day time and the rest at night.17 King Humayun was fonder of opium and seldom took wine. King Akbar never crossed the limits of decency.18 Strict prohibition was enforced by all Mughal kings but it could not discourage the local people. The most common and cheapest drink was tari, juice of coconut or palm date trees.19 Shiraz Wine (from Persia) was particularly popular in Mughal court. Bhang was another common intoxication which was sometimes mixed with nutmeg and mace. Tobacco gained popularity among common people as Portuguese launched it in India. Akbar enjoyed it a lot although his physician strictly advised him not to use it regularly. The use of betel leaf called pan was common in India among all classes.20 Tea and coffee were used in the coastal areas of India. Tea was used by commoners and coffee was the drink of elite, such as Ovington mentioned the coffee part of the Nawab of Thatta.21 Tea and coffee houses existed in Delhi and Ahmadabad.
5.
Amusements
Mughals
introduced many indoor and outdoor games. Among the outdoor diversions, hunting was the game of royals.
Animal fight, polo, and wrestling were
also very much in vogue.22 It is strange that no record of wrestling is
found before Mughals. Akbar played the
game of chess with slave girls as they were used as dices on the chess board. It is still preserved in
the pashisi court of Fatehpur Skiri. Chaucer was a very famous game which
remained popular throughout the Mughal period. Zeb
un-Nisa,
the daughter of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, was an expert of this game. Chandal Mandal was the refined form of
Chauper.23 Polo was the well-established
recreation of the royals and nobles. Royal ladies also played polo
during the Mughal period. The game came
from Persia and became popular in India. Abul Fazal narrated that “Polo acquired predominance as the form
of pleasure and the emperor really liked
it in those days”. Akbar introduced a new form of polo that was played
in the night as well.24 People also
spent their time wrestling. It was pursued by both kings and commoners. In South India, women also took
part in wrestling competitions. King
Akbar was himself was a very good wrestler. He fixed a day of week to
enjoy wrestling before him in the palace
of his capital city.
Hunting
was one of the means of amusements in Mughal India. Kings, princes, nobles and commoners all indulged in
this game. Akbar invented a new style of
hunting known as Qumargah25 which became popular among Mughals games. Muslims were also fond of animal fight, a
special fight was prepared under the
command of the in-charge of the royal stable and it was presented before
the king at the darshani gate of the
Agra fort. Akbar took special interest in elephant fight. Pigeon flying was in vogue in those days and
he studied different breeds of pigeons
and used different methods to cross-breed pigeons. India is famous for
music. Mughal emperors took a special
interest in musical compositions. King Babur himself was an expert in music and
composed many folk songs. Bairam Khan, companion commander of Humayun was an expert musician.
The reign of Akbar produced legends like
Tan Sen besides Ram Das and many others. There were famous musicians at Shahjahan’s court such as Lal
Khan and Sawad Khan who belonged to
Fatehpur.26 Mughal music was the mixture of Central Asian and Indian
Music. Tan Sen, a leading singer in the
court of Akbar, took Mughal music to its highest glory in the mediaeval ages.
6.
Festivals
In
Mughal times, a number of festivals were celebrated throughout the year. Some were religious in their format and some
were neutral. Many Muslim festivals
became the part of part of local culture and many local fairs became the
part of Muslim civilization. Nauroz was
borrowed from Persia, the New Year's Day, a
national festival during Mughal times. The birthday of the ruling King
was celebrated in the length and breadth
of the empire with great pomp and show. Weighing ceremony of kind (Tuledan), on the eve of
their birthdays, was the rituals of Rajputs
adopted by Mughals. Akbar celebrated both his lunar and solar birthdays.
All Mughal emperors followed this
custom.27 Humayun introduced Mīna Bazar. Akbar continued this practice in form of khushroz or joyful
day. Holi is considered one of the ancient
festivals of the Hindus, a day of rejoicing, music and feast, as it is
today. Color throwing was a compulsory
part of the celebration. It is normally celebrated on the eve of spring. Diwali or Dipawali means a row
of lamps. It is observed on the 15th day
of the first half of the Hindu month of Kartika (October-November).28 It
is associated with the arrival of Lord
Rama to his Kingdom. Muslim emperors made it a part of official celebrations. King Akbar made Holi
and Diwali an official event of rejoicing
and social gathering.29 King Jahangir continued it in the same manner.
Aurangzeb, however, suspended this
event.
The
Muslim month of mourning called Muharram is dedicated to the anniversary of Imām Hussain’s death at
Karbala and it is one of the tragic events in
the history of Muslims. All Muslim sects especially Shi’a mourn in this
month of tragedy. Eid-ul-Adha or Bakra
Eid is celebrated in the memory of the sacrifice of Prophet Ibrahim (AS) that was held on 10th
Zil-Hajj, month of Muslim lunar year. Eid
ul-Fitr, also known as Choti (little) Eid, is celebrated after the month of fasting known as Ramazan. It is celebrated on the first day of Shawwal and continues for three days.30 Muslim communities in all parts of the Indian subcontinent celebrated it both in court and at lower levels. Hindus never celebrated Muslim festivals but sent them foods and clothes on auspicious occasions. Mughal kings officially announced Hindu festivals in their courts.
7.
Fairs
Numerous
periodical fairs were held at Hindu pilgrimage places where Hindu men, women and children gathered for their
religious assemblies. There is a famous
saying about India that it celebrates more fairs and festivals than the
number of days in a year. These events
were mutually respected. Hindus respected Muslim celebrations and vice versa. Religious fairs
of Muslims were held in Ajmer, Delhi and Lahore. Other communities celebrated them in
Haridwar, Mathura, Ujjain, Kashi and
Rameshwaram.31
8.
Education
In the words of a modern educationist, “education was not popular in India.” Traditional religious education was considered the priority of parents for their children. All communities provided this kind of education in their religious centers, such as temples, mosques, monasteries etc. Priestly class was responsible for education in India. Some patachala also served for the purpose of education. Dargahs were considered the sources of learning. Muslim sufi saints who migrated from Central Asia spread the massage of equality and promoted the cause of education in many parts of India. No regular syllabus and examination were part of learning during medieval times. King hired the services of religious and secular teachers for the training of his next generations. King Akbar also appointed a Christian teacher for the education of his grandchildren. Women of royalty got their education from experts like Sati-un-Nisa,32 who was appointed the teacher and trainer of Jahan Ara. Zeb-un Nisa, daughter of King Aurangzeb, was a known poetess of medieval times. The education of common woman was restricted only to Quran and household works which she normally acquired from her mother. Private libraries were common. Kings, royal ladies, saints and religious scholars had their private libraries. Mughal plural culture gave space to the education of all communities. Even the royal prince Dara Shikoh was an expert in Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian. He translated Upanishads and also wrote the common ethics of all religious philosophies named as Majam-al Bahrain.
9.
Position of Women in Society
Even
the liberal king Akbar had to issue an order that, “If someone found a young woman running in the streets and
bazaars of a town and while doing so she did
not veil herself and allowed herself to become unveiled...she had to go to
the quarters of the prostitutes and take
up this profession.”33
Purdah
seems to have been observed in Hindu middle classes but certainly not among the Hindu masses. Hindu ladies
could move out of doors with little or no
restrictions. The birth of a daughter was considered inauspicious. The
anxiety of Akbar was visible in the case
of his first child when he prayed if Almighty God bestowed a son on him, he would go on foot
from Agra to Shaikh Muin-ud-Din
Chishti's mausoleum, at a distance of about 140 ks from his capital. He
did so, only because of the male
off-spring.
Polygamy
was in vogue among the rich Muslims; each Muslim can keep three or four wives at a time as it is religiously
allowed. Hindus, in the small class of rajas and elites had many wives but
generally restricted themselves to monogamy as
enjoined by their social custom.
The
custom grew so much that Akbar issued orders that if a woman “happened to be older by twelve years than
her husband, the marriage should be
considered as illegal and annulled.”34 Muslim elite married Hindu women
and gave them freedom to follow their
native religion. Akbar’s Hindu wives followed Hinduism as Krishna Temple in Fatehpur Sikri Palace
indicated the religious freedom of
Akbar’s elder wife.
Akbar
held a regard for the chastity of the Hindu woman, who burnt herself with the dead body of her husband and
accepted immortal path. Jahangir, too praised
the chastity of Hindu ladies who never allowed “the touch of an unknown
person and accepts the flames of her
husband pyre.”35 Mughals did not forbade Satti by positive law, because it was the part of their
(Mughal) policy to leave the idolatrous population with “a free exercise of their religion”, but
the practice was checked by indirect
means.
10.
Birth Ceremonies
Abdul
Fazl describes the birth ceremony when honey and ghee were put into the mouth (of the infant) by parents and
relatives by means of a gold ring.36 Muslims
have numerous ceremonies and rituals which are attended on the eve of birth;
only aqiqah has been allowed on the
birth of a child by Prophet Muhammad (SAW). The
other important rituals, such as the naming ceremony, bismillah
(initiation), sunnat (circumcision),
etc. owe their origin either to the ‘traditions’ or other Muhammadan (SAW)
works on ethics.37
Muslim
call to prayer azān is sounded in the ears of every Muslim infant. The practice of consulting the Holy Book in the
matter of consulting ‘names’ still prevails
among the Muslims. Akbar respected the fire cult, complied with Parsies
and adopted Persian names. Aurangzeb
stopped birthday anniversaries of the king in the 51st year of his reign.38
11.
Marriages
Early marriages were in vogue in India those days. It was due to the socio political and religious circumstances in which a father had to marry his daughter in an early age.39 The reason for this, as Abul Fazal asserted, was the desire for the best legacy which was physically, mentally and morally transferred to the children and they acquired good or bad qualities of their ancestors.40 Akbar was against high dowries, but he considered that high dowries were a check on the ratio of divorce.41 Mughals had matrimonial alliances with women from other communities like Hindus, Irani, Turrani and Deccani women. Even the orthodox king Aurangzeb had two Rajput and two Irani wives. It will be interesting to relate with the life of Princess Zinat-un-Nisa, who wanted to spend a maiden's life. So, she begged her father that the amount of her dowry must be spent it in the construction of a mosque at Delhi which was later known as Kunwari Masjid.42
12.
Death Ceremonies
Death
was announced by using certain euphemisms especially in the case of great men. Emperor Babar “departed from the
fleeting world for the everlasting abode
in paradises.” Akbar escorted the dead body of Maham Anaga for a
distance to show his respect to
her.
Among
Muslims, mourning was observed for forty days according to Manucci. On the death of Qutb-ud-Din Koka's
mother, Jahnagir refused to change his
clothes, who the emperor regarded as his own mother.43 Shahjahan also
gave up the use of colored clothes on
the death of Mumtaz Mahal, his beloved wife. Jahangir also said that this custom was equally popular
among Hindus and Muslims. Food was
prepared and distributed among the poor after death rituals and reciting
the fatihe.44
13.
Charity and Public Works by Mughal Kings
Mughal
kings were particular about giving away a large amount of money in charity. Akbar fixed the amount of daily and
monthly alms and also a certain amount
in a year for the poor community. Abul Fazl wrote that a crore of dams
was kept ready in the period of Akbar in
his audience hall for distribution among the poor and the needy.45 Haji Begam, wife of Humayun, provided
maintenance allowance to about five
hundred needy persons.46 Noorjahan provided dowries to poor and needy girls
for their marriages.47 Charity, grain
and bread were freely distributed to the poor on the birth of a son in the royal family. Jahanara
distributed fifty thousand on the occasion
of the recovery from illness of her father Shahjahan to the poor and
needy. Festivals like Nauroz, Salgirah,
Eids, Shab-i-Barat, etc. were the special occasions on which a king showed his generosity.48 Mughal emperors
were never lagged behind in this
activity.
Jahangir's
mother built a baoli or step-well for travelers in the pargana of Jasut. A sum of Rs. 20,000 was spent on this
well. Nurjahan constructed Nur Mahal ki
Sarai at Agra and Patna and Begum Sahib's famous caravan-sarai at Kirki
deserves a special mention. The famous
Arab Sarai was built by Haji Begam, wife of Humayun just to facilitate travelers. Zinat-un-Nisa
Begum49 also built fourteen sarais (inns) in
different parts of the country. An order of Jahangir (1605) was clearly
laid down that excessive funds should be
spent in building mosques and sarais, in the repair of broken bridges and digging tanks and wells to
provide drinking water to the people.
Emperor
Aurangzeb ordered Mir Habibullah of Jaunpur to levy poll-tax on non-Muslims, who inappropriately used over
Rs. 40,000 from the imperial treasury as
the money of offender (Aurangzeb).50 In the Banaras Farman in 1659,
Aurangzeb protected Hindu temples and
their caretakers so that Brahmans could pray for the longevity of the Mughal State. Among
Muhammadans, it was considered meritorious
to spend money in charity at their holy places like Mecca, Medina,
Meshad, etc. There are numerous
instances when the kings and their nobles sent a huge amount of money to poor besides clothes.
There
were few efforts by Mughal emperors to improve the condition of the roads. Sher Shah Sur was, however, an
exception. It was not safe to travel without a proper guard, as the highways
had many robbers and thieves. People, merchants and travelers preferred to accompany a caravan
which were safe to quote a contemporary
was as it was a safe journey for everyone.51 They carried their
merchandise from one place to another.
Sometimes people organized this group journey for travelers only. “Thousands and thousands of people would join
the king’s entourage as he moved out.
And as a writer said, “Akbar's court was a mini city, even when he was
quartered in a city, a camp, a
travelling city was considered one of the safest journey as guarded by the royal security.”52
14.
Houses
Indian
houses have been built for centuries with due consideration given to a hot climate. Forts were built for the kings.
Mughals renovated old forts like Lahore
and Delhi forts. They introduced delicacy in architecture, such as Akbar
built a new capital city and red sand
stone was excessively used in its buildings. All Mughal palaces had gardens with running water
channels. This style was borrowed from
central Asia. Shahjahan introduced marble in the different styles of
architecture and erected the seventh
wonder of the world known as Taj Mahal. This style is known as Indo-Persian architecture. Mughal
architecture was the mixture of Turkish, Persian and native Indian architecture. The gate of
Agra fort exhibits Indian elephant and
birds. A famous terrace in Diwan-e-Āam in Lahore Fort exhibits the
Buddhist influence on the Mughal
architecture. Local styles of housing and building material were also used. Mansions were built to serve
the rajas and elite communities in
different states with a typical style which meant that square buildings
always had a garden in the center. Poor
communities used mud houses with bamboo roofs. In the south, the leaves of Palm trees were used in
roofs. Most houses in Kashmir were made
up of wood. Houses in Sindh were a combination of straws and mud. A
simple Indian house consisted of one or
two rooms with a veranda outside. Sometimes they had toilets and sometimes they did not. Trees
were part of every style of architecture.
Travelers praised Indians for their love of nature and greenery.53
15.
Travelling
Several
Europeans have especially mentioned the Mughal manner of travelling. Humayun moved on Takht-i-Rawan.
Humayun took this idea from the
Abbasids, Muslim rulers who constructed a floating throne in the river
Farat (Euphrates River). King was
accompanied with umaras and nobility when he visited the shrine of a sufi or a mosque. Palanquins
were in vogue especially for the king and
his ladies. Elephants and camels were also the part of royal procession.
Common mode of travelling was bull cart
for long distances. Normally, people travelled by foot in all parts of Hindustan. The traditional
infrastructure of roads connected one city to
another. It was normally used by travelers and merchants who exchanged
their merchandize and goods across the
major cities of Hindustan. The postal system of
India in medieval times did not cater the needs of the common man.
Official correspondence reached the
capital every day. There were two types of couriers, reached by foot or on horses. Foot- couriers
had a long stick in their hands about two cubits long with small bells on it.
Dakchaukis and runners officially served the
Muslim empire in those days. Sarais were also considered the means
of communication.54 The king ordered the
construction of a milestone at each kos and the
establishment of a well on every 3rd mile. Many travelers have mentioned
the administration of these inns expect
Bernier.55 Each inn was under an official who
closed the gates at sunset and opened them at dawn. He requested the
inmates to protect their belongings; if
anything went missing the gates were closed again, a search was ordered and the thief was caught
red-handed.56
16.
Conclusion
The
idea of Indian culture and civilization under Muslims is very unique. This culture was blended with the practices of
every community of India. This
acknowledgement is the proof of co-existence that all Indian communities
lived together under Mughals, especially
Hindus and Muslims. There were no traces of
conflict for centuries. This culture was visible throughout North India
but it is a reality that South India
always went intact with her indigenous culture. Although, the South also had
good relations with Muslims of Bahamni Sultanate. The prosperity of Hindustan strengthened this civilization
during pre-modern times.
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Sarkar, J. N. Studies in Mughal India. Calcutta: N.D., 1919.
Seth,
Vijay K. The Story of Indian Manufacturing, Encounter with Mughal and British Empire. Delhi: Ane Books, 2017.
Tavernier, J. B. The Six Voyages through Turkey in the Persia and East Indies. Paris: J Glosier, 1977.
Note
*Correspondence
concerning this article should be addressed to Dr. Rukhsana Iftikhar, Associate Professor, Department of History
and Pakistan Studies, University of the Punjab,
Lahore at rukhsana234@yahoo.com
1Nizamuddin
Ahmad, Tabaqāt-a-Akbari III volumes (London: I.C.S. Publisher,
2Jadunath
N. Sarkar, Studies in Mughal India (Calcutta: 1919), 138.
3Abul
Fazal Allami, Āin-i-Akbari Vol. II, III, trans., H. S. Jarrett and revised by
Sir Sadunath Sarkar H. Blochmann (New
Delhi: D. K. Publishers, 1994), 115,
https://archive.org/stream/TheAin-i-akbari-VolIi-iii/TheAin-i-akbari-VolIi-iii_djvu.txt 4A. S. Beveridge, Humayunama, (trans.)
(London: 1902), 150.
https://archive.org/stream/historyofhumayun00gulbrich/historyofhumayun00gulbrich_djvu.txt
5S.
J. Monserrate, The Commentary, trans., J. S. Hoyland annotated by S. N.
Banerji (Oxford University Press, 1922),
198.
6Abul
Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, Vol. III, https://archive.org/stream/TheAin-i-akbari-VolIi
iii/TheAin-i-akbari-VolIi-iii_djvu.txt
7Babur,
Tuzuk-i-Babari, trans., A. S. Beveridge (London: 1921), 519.
8Nizamuddin
Ahmad, Tabaqāt-i-Akbari, 100.
9J.
B. Taversnier, The Six Voyages Through Turkey into Persia and East Indies,
Vol. II (London: 1967), 125.
10Abul
Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, 316, 312.
11Beni
Parsad, History of Jahangir (London: Indiana Press, 1930), 183. 12Malik Muhammad Jayasi, Padmavat (trans.)
(Canob: 1911), 179.
13Vijay
K. Seth, The Story of Indian Manufacturing, Encounter with Mughal and British Empire (India: Anne Books, 2017),
45.
14Francois,
Travels in Mughal Empire, trans., Bernnier and Annotated by Archibald Constable (V. A. Smith Revised, 1934),
230.
15Abul
Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, Vol. II, 128.
16Babur,
Baburnama, Vol. 2, 125.
17Beni
Parsad, History of Jahangir, 69.
18Badaoni,
Muntakhbul, Tawārīkh, (trans.,) in three volumes, Vol. II (T. W. Haig: 1925), 301-302.
19William
Foster, Early Travels in India (Oxford: 1921), 146.
20W.
H. Moreland, India at the Death of Akbar, an Economic Study (London:
1920). 21J. Ovington, A Voyage to Surat
in the Year 1789 (London: 1700), 306.
22K.
M. Ashraf, Life and Condition of People of Hindustan (Calcutta: Asiatic
Society of Bengal: 1933), 296.
23Stanely
Lanepole, History of India (London: West Vintage Press, 1965), 37. 24J. N. Sarkar, Studies in Mughal India,
292.
25P.
N Chopra, Life and Letters under Mughals (Delhi: Aditya Parkashan, 1975),
115. 26Being a Turkish Game, Qamangah
must have been in Voyage during the Regions of
Babur and Humayun but no documentary evidence is available
27Āin-i-Akbari,
Vol. I, 318.
28Badaoni,
Muntakhbul Tawārīkh, Vol. II, 39-40.
29Abul
Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, Vol. III, 321.
30Sir
Thomas Roe, Travels in Indian in 17th Century (London: Trubner & Co,
1873), 307.
31R.
C. Majumdar, The History and Culture of Indian People (London: G. Alien
& Co., 1951).
32J.
N. Sarkar, Studies in Islamic Culture, 332-336.
33Badaoni,
Muntakhbul Tawārīkh, (trans.), Vol. II, 391-392.
34Sir
Thomas Roe, Travels in India, op. cit., 182.
35Nurud-din
Jahangir Padshah, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri [Memoirs of Jahangir], Trans. Alexander Roger,
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/53674/53674-h/53674-h.htm., 66. 36Abul Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, op. cit.
37Francisco
Pelsaert, Jahangir’s India: The Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert, trans. W. H. Moreland and P. Geyl (Cambridge:
W.H. Moreland and P. Geyl, 1925), 66.
38Badaoni, Muntakhbul Tawārīkh (trans.), Vol. II, Op. Cit., 391.
39Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri,
268.
40Afzal
Hussain, “Marriages among Mughal Nobles as an Index of Status and Aristocratic Integration: Proceedings of
Indian History Congress,” Vol. 33 (India: 1971), 304- 312.
41Abul
Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, Vol. III, Op. cit, 318.
42Z.
Farooqi, Life and Times of Aurangzeb (Lahore: Book Traders, 2002), 85. 43Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Vol. III), Op. Cit,
268.
44J.
N. Sarkar, History of Aurangzeb (Calcutta: R.C & Sons), 85-86.
45Abul
Fazal, Āin-i-Akbari, Vol. III, Op. cit, 318.
46Gulbadan
Begum, Humayunama, 62.
47Beni
Parsad, History of Jahangir (Allahabad: The Indian Press, 1930),
https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.86122/2015.86122.History-Of-Jahangir-Second
Edition_djvu.txt
48B.
P Saksena, History of Shahjahan of Delhi (Delhi: Central Books, 1962), 45. 49J. N. Sarkar, History of Aurangzeb, Op. cit,
355.
50Annie
Krieger Krynicki, Captive Princess: Zeb-un-Nissa, Daughter of Emperor Aurangzeb (Oxford University Press, 2005),
34.
51Hussain
Khan, Sher Shah Suri (Lahore: Feroz Sons, 1994), 112.
52Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri,
Op. cit, 85.
53J.
Ovington, A Voyage to Surat, Op. cit., 245.
54P.
N. Chopra, Life and Letters under the Great Mughals (Delhi: Aditya
Parkash, 1975), 258-263.
55Bernier,
Travels in the Mughals Empire (India: Oxford University Press, 1914), 56. 56Hussain Khan, Sher Shah, op. cit., 54.
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