What are the key factors that led to the Partition of India?

 By: Win Nwe Oo  

Table of Contents  

1.0 Introduction  

2.0 Background History  

3.0 Key Factors that led to the Partition of India and Pakistan  

3.1 Dynamics of Politics- British, INC and Muslim League  

3.2 Cultural/Communal Tension- Religious Differences6 

3.3 Economic Inequalities and Rise of Communism  

4.0 British India Partition Plan  

5.0 Conclusion  

6.0 References  

7.0 Appendices

1.0 Introduction  

The sunset of the British colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent signified the division of India  into two sovereign states. OnAugust 14- 15 1947, the presence of the British in India which was  around 300 years terminated with the conception of Pakistan as an Islamic States and India as a  Secular state .The socio-cultural and economic disparities between the two communities due to  the British strategic administration steered the tragic partition. The 1947 partition had an  immense effect on the South Asia political and social relations till the presence days (Khan,  2007).This essay will critically analyze the causes that prompt the partition of India and Pakistan  and the discussion of how the British unfurl the partition of India.  

Figure 1 British India before Partition and Present day Demographics (Vajani, 2018)  

2.0 Background History

The British came into India through the East India Company for trading purposes during the rule of Mughal Empire in the 16th century as prior to that era known the rise of British colonization and industrialization. Though the British presented peace and security, the local industry was commercialized and the conventional Indian town life was scattered. The escalation of the Indian Mutiny of 18571 insurgencies due to the monopoly of the company led to the establishment of the direct of British Empire (Phillips, 2017).

The British Raj2 had ruled the India- subcontinent for nearly a century and India was the imperative part of the British Imperialism3. Even though the British brought structural changes4 in India, yet most of the Indians believed that the British deprived the resources and manpower from India. The independence movement began due to the rights of the Indians being misrepresented as not getting the equal pay as British workers and lack of depiction in the government. The Indian National Congress was formed in 1855 to end the reign of British in India and led by the famous nationalist such as Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. The Hindu was the dominant race of the party and thus led to the tension between Muslim and Hindu in India. As the British dividing the India with the religions status as a grand strategy at the Bengal and Punjab provinces, the Muslim League was formed .The Muslim League led by Ali Jinnah was to quit the British rule as well as to divide the India to form the Islamic state (Phillips, 2017).

3.0 Key Factors that led to the Partition of India and Pakistan  

India is ethnically and culturally diverse and has a long history which is the reason that triggered  the partition. As the colonies empire of Britain, India's political structure and trends was played  by Britain. Therefore, the way that British rule directly affect the political, social and economic  tensions between the Muslim and Hindus. Although the partition was rooted by the social and  cultural differences, the political factors elicit that cultural and religious tension between the two  communities.  

3.1 Dynamics of Politics- British, INC and Muslim League  

The 19th century was the marked of Indian nationalism as several movement began in India. After  the Indian Munity of 1857 insurgences, the British directly ruled India with the policy of “Divide  and Rule” by breaking up the unity between Hindu and Muslim so that it is impossible for  Indians to generate any revolution against British Empire. The confirmation of this approach  could be traced in the division of Bengal in 1905, the Punjab and Bengal Province with the  metric of religious majority. As per appendix 1, the indication of the division of Muslim majority  province which is eastern part of the Bengal. The tactics systematically stimulate the political  division between Hindu and Muslim which led to the formation of the Muslim party. With the  encouragement of British, the Muslim League was formed to defend the right of Muslim in 1906.  To make more break amongst Hindus and Muslims, in Morley Minton demonstration of 1909 the  British presented the different electorate for Muslim populace which pin point the disharmony  between Hindu and Muslim in India (Sandhu, 2009).  

In 1916, India National Congress (INC) and Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact to gain  greater autonomy in governing that was denied by the British. During the World War, Indianwas  supporting the British Empire in the war and severely smashed, because of this the congress  prompt calls of more self - administration whereby the Muslim League realized that despite  signing the Lucknow Pact for Indian greater political autonomy, Muslim were still  underrepresented especially in the minority’s province like Madras.The Montagu- Chelmsford  Reforms of 1919 was the first promised for self-governing of India by institutionalizing the 

communal representation as a reserved seat. The Second World War was the turning point of the  politics between Muslim league, INC and British Empire as Muslim League supporting the  British and gain supporting from Muslim in India (Khan, 2007).  

Under the pledged leadership of Ali Jinnah, Muslim League proposed the philosophy of Two  Nation theory which kept up that India is a state in light of Hinduism and that the political and  financial interests of Muslims of the country vary from that of Hindus. Thus, spike the Muslim to  create the nations which represent their interests of the culture, tradition and language. This  ideology to some extent developed the commonality as Hindu fundamentalist’s belief that  separation is required since the Hindu was the heritage ethnic groups of India. However,  Mahatma Gandhi and India National Congress initially rejected the idea of parting of India into  two dominions since they believed that unity is important to overthrow the British and formed a  peaceful state. The unavailability of the congress to settle with the Muslim League proposal also  upset the Jinnah as it left him held that there is no alternative left except partition. The Muslim  League demand for the reformation of the reservation seats with based on population and  redistribution of seats in central as one third of the seat so that Muslim get fair representation  (Ambedkar, 1945).  

Nevertheless, the congress was persuaded of the partition due the “Direct Action Day” and the  communal riots per Appendix 2.With the deadlock settlement between INC and Muslim League,  Ali Jinnah on August 16, 1946 declared the complete strike which cause the massive riots and  killing in Calcutta between Hindus and Muslims. As appendix, this protest is also known as  “1946- Hindu and Muslim Riots”. This portrays that India was already torn apart with communal  conflict and if there is a consideration to obtain peace, partition is the only plausible solution  (Zehra, 2016). 

3.2 Cultural/Communal Tension- Religious Differences  

India is ethically and culturally diverse with rich history. Nevertheless, it had a long history of  religious tensions as Muslim expansion and rule for 300 years, threaten the Hindu way of life. As  one culture directly portray the one identity, cultural and religions are sensitive’s issues for most  Indians. Before the British invaded India, The Mughal Empire, an Islam kingdom was ruling  India in which Hindu despised Muslim since in ancient times India was a Hindus homeland. The  racial conflict between the Hindu and Muslim was more pronounced during the British Raj reign  as the British divide the Bengal and Punjab according to the religions. Despite being Indians,  there was always the racial tension between the Muslims and Hindus because of the religions  differences which comprised of the social differences. For instance, Beef was the staple foods for  Muslims while the Hindus preached the cows as gods. Muslim celebrated ‘Eid by slaughtering  the cow crated the communal incentive as showing that the differences are precisely hard to  compromise each other. Hindus like music while it is considering as sin for Muslims so it is  forbidden (Farah, 2011).  

As the Indian National Congress was dominated by the Hindus majority, the constitution and the  governance were in the favor of the Hindus, the Muslims felt that they were not having enough  voice and representation as they were the minority groups. The changing approaches of Muslim League demonstrate the solid political trends of this issue. The Muslims were feared that the  domination of the Hindu would interfere in their way of life and teaching as instructed in the  Quran. Nonetheless, Congress was frequently required with Hindu religious life, for instance by  proposing a prohibition of killing of cows. Muslim individuals from the Congress couldn't take  the dread away that a nation drove by the Congress would consequently imply that Muslims  would be a smothered minority forever The establishment of the Hindu Mahashaba embraced the  system of the Shuddic as the Hindu nation that led to the rise of the communalism5 between the  two ethnic groups which inspire to have a separate nation. This organizations advocate that the  interest and way of life of the Hindu and Muslim were differ and as India was predominantly  Hindu, they want to establish a pure Hindu nation in parallel with Muslim League. As both  communities see each other as differences culturally, it is impossible for them to coexist in the  homogenous state anymore. This contemplation led to the idea of demanding a separate state  whereby even in the means of violence separation must take place (Farah, 2011)

3.3 Economic Inequalities and Rise of Communalism  

The economic disparity between Hindu and Muslim set off the communal feelings which later  developed into rivalry and violence. As Mughal Empire, a Muslim kingdom was ruling the India  before British came in, Muslim felt prolonged in the reign. They refused to compromise with the  British as they did not learn English nor accept their culture. In the early period of the British  rule, the policies and legislations such as in education and economic courtesy the Hindu more  than the Muslim. In a way to lessen the prospects of Muslim, English was replaced as a main  occupation in 1837 instead of Persian as the British believe that Muslims play a key part in the  Sepoy revolution. Due to that there is a huge socio-economic difference between Muslim and  Hindus in India as that particular time as majority of Muslims were working as farmers, labors  and made up of lower-class while the Hindu majorities are landlords.The blend of religious  interest with monetary interests made a politically unstable circumstance profoundly defenseless  to communalism publicity (Chakrabarty, 2004).  

Because of their low salary, the Muslims were dependent on Hindu moneylenders for survival.  These financiers charged high rate interest, depleting the Muslims of much more cash. This  created the unity and strong communalism among the Muslims in Bengal Province as they  maintain a strategic distance from the trap set by the Hindu moneylender as an outflow of  Muslim partnership. Moreover, Muslim those who lived in the Hindu owner farms have to pay  more as in their family occasions like weddings. These backwardness of the role of Muslim  trigger the Muslim League leader like Sir Ahmed Khan to further strengthen the representation  of Muslims as it give birth to communalism as they have to compete with Hindu for better  representations in politics and economics. The Hindu resent the progress of the Muslims  ideology which initiated Hindu communalism like Hindu Mahashaba group. The vested  awareness reinforce into communal violence with the administration of systematic British  policies and communal leaders of Muslim League and Hindu Mahashaba (Chakrabarty, 2004). 

4.0 British India Partition Plan  

After World War II, there was a consideration of the British to transfer India independence.  Lord Mountbatten was allottedto settle with INC and Muslim League. The intercession was  known as the 3rd June Plan or Mountbatten Plan whereby India was torn apart with the  communal conflict at the particular time. Mountbatten's strategy was to divide India with the  thoroughgoing unity as he took contemplation of the Congress and unambiguously to make  Pakistan as small as possible so that withdrawal of British could be accomplished. The plan was  the favorable by all the parities since the communal crisis took over in different parts of India  and unification of the two communities under a homogenous state is the impossible realization  for both the congress and Muslim League (Nawaz, 2013).  

Figure 2 Lord Mountbatten Meeting with the INC and Muslim League  

In order to divide the sub-continent geographically, Cyril Radcliffe was allocated to draw the  line of separation and according to the mechanism of religious majority, economic resources and  strategic infrastructures like railways and ports. The line was known as the Radcliffe Line which  was criticized for the causes of the unending territorial disputes and mass migration. On 17  August 1947, the delineation line was announced between India and Pakistan on the day of the partition. An act was endorsed by Britain to liberate India from the administration of British  acknowledged as “India Independence Act 1947”. It was an act that partitioned the British India  into two dominions India and Pakistan with the establishment of assigning the Viceroy for both  the states and till the states enact its own constitution (Nawaz, 2013).  

Figure 3: Radcliffe and 1947 Partition of India 

5.0 Conclusion  

The existence of the British in India ended followed by the massacre and riots. A large number  of individuals moved to that they trusted would be a more secure area, with Muslims heading  towards Pakistan, and Hindus and Sikhs toward India. The partition elicit the refugee’s crisis  whereby thousands die by diseases in the camp. As women regarded as the honor of the  community, crime against women such as rape, assault were rampant. Just a few months after the  independence, both state start a precedent relations by engaging in the war fight for Kashmir and  later followed by the Bangladesh Liberation War 1971. As bothstates was torn apart by the  refugees crisis and shackled economy, the continuous engaging in the war make is worse as it  molded the development, social integration and relations between the India and Pakistan in the  presence days.  Right after the independence, India and Pakistan had shaped strategic relations however the  impacts of the distractors partition and regional clashes sort of overwhelmed the conciliatory  relationship. Despite the fact that India and Pakistan share memorable, social and geographic yet  their relationship has been loaded with threatening vibe and doubt. 

6.0 References 1  

Ambedkar. (1945). Pakistan Or Partition Of India. Bombay: Thacker and Comapny Limited.  

Chakrabarty, B. (2004). The Partition of Bengal and Assam, 1932-1947. London:  RoutledgeCurzon.  

Farah, A. A. (2011). Why was India Partitioned at Independence? E-International Relations .  

Khan, Y. (2007). The Great Partition: The Making of Pakistan and India. NEW HAVEN AND  LONDON: Yale University Press.  

Nawaz, G. (2013). The British Plan of the Partition of the Punjab in 1947 . Pakistan Journal of  History and Culture .  

Phillips, S. (2017). Why Was British India Partitioned in 1947? Considering the Role of  Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Faculty of History,University of Oxford.  

Sandhu, A. H. (2009). Reality of 'Divide and Rule' in British India. Pakistan Journal of History  and Culture , 63-69.  

Vajani, P. (2018, 7 11). Indian nationalism. Retrieved from SlideShare:  https://www.slideshare.net/priyanshivajani/indian-nationalism-60198894  

Zehra, R. (2016). Direct Action Day: When Massive Communal Riots Made Kolkata Bleed. The  Hunt . 

7.0 Appendices  

Appendix 1: Partition of Bengal 1905- British Divide and Rule  

Figure 4: Partition of Bengal 1905
 

Appendix 2: Direct Action Day 

5.0 References 2  

1. Indian Munity 1857- also called Sepoy Munity Crsis or First Revolution of India whereby the sepoy(solider) took arm against the East India Company 2. The British Raj – refer to the British direct rule in India. British came through India through East India Company and rule for a century until the Sepoy Munity riots took place, whereby the British directly ruled India from then onwards. 3. Imperialism - an action that involves a nation extending its power by the acquisition of inhabited territory 4. Structural Changes- refer to the changes of the structure such as transportation, education and governance 5. Communalism - Communalism is a term used in South Asia to denote attempts to construct religious or ethnic identity, incite strife between people identified as different communities, and to stimulate communal violence between those groups.