Mohammad Ashraf Malik, Research Scholar,
Islamic Studies, University of Kashmir,
ashrafamin121@gmail.com
Abstract
Religion marks its
presence in every epoch of human history. Human beings possess an inherent urge
to seek for a Supreme Being, Who offers solutions to the multifarious problems
of life. A number of methods are adopted by civilizations to comprehend the phenomenon
of religion. The Orientals have a special characteristic of seeking the unity
of religions (Wahdat al Adyan). The paper will show through the case study of
Sikhism, how unity of religions remains the watchword of the people of the
East.
Key Words: Bhakti,
Sant[1],
Sufism
Introduction
The phenomenon of religion exists where the humans exist. There is hardly any period of human history where the traces of religion are not found. Though there are differences in the beliefs and rituals of different religions yet it can be safely assumed that each community of men- ancient, medieval, and modern, cling to the concept of a Supreme Being. In the words of William Schmidt, The idea of God is to be found, it will be generally admitted, not only in monotheistic religions, but in polytheistic religions also, and as polytheisms have developed out of polydaemonism, that is to say, as the personal beings or powers of polydaemonism have, in course of time, come to possess proper names and a personal history, some idea of divine personality must be admitted to be present in polydaemonism as well as in polytheism; and in the same way, some idea of a personality greater than the human may be taken to lie at the back of both polydaemonism and fetishism.[2]
Religion being a complex phenomenon, hardly accepts
any particular definition. However in order to arrive at some familiarity, I
may put forth a few definitions. According to Professor Galloway, “Religion is
man`s faith in a power beyond himself whereby he seeks to satisfy emotional
needs and gain stability of life and which he expresses in acts of worship and
service”. A.C. Campbell, while devoting an entire chapter on the problem of a definition
of religion says, “ Religion is a state of mind comprising belief in the reality of a supernatural being or
beings endowed with transcendent power and worth, together with the complex
emotive attitude of worship intrinsically
appropriate thereto”. Ibn Khaldun defines religion as “A natural urge of
a man to worship his Creator”. In the backdrop of such views, we may arrive at
a position that religion is central to and an inseparable part of human life.
In the Eastern part of the world especially in the
Indian sub-continent religion has its own unique legacy. It is the
conglomeration of religions−Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism,
Sikhism, Christianity, and Islam. All such religions flourish side by side. But
it is not that there have had been no efforts to combine the diverse teachings
and practices of these religions to evolve a new faith. The well organised
efforts intended to transcend the differences and strike for a fine blend of
different teachings of religions may be traced back to the 13th
century Bhakti Movement. The movement gave birth to a number of small religious
orders but its real consequence was a religion better known as Sikhism.
Bhakti
Movement
Bhakti movement is a remarkable episode of medieval
Indian history, when during the 13th century a number of famous
saints preached the cult of Bhakti. Bhakti or devotion was shown as the
simplest way to reach God. There was no necessity for deep philosophical knowledge;
costly ceremonies, or difficult rituals, surrender to God was the only need of
true religion. The movement carried an emotional appeal to the minds of men. In
the words of Sri Vallabha, “Bhakti refers to the firm and all surpassing
affection of God with full sense of His greatness. It means attachment to God
and that presupposes detachment from all other things. The feeling of oneness with
God is its culmination. It is gained through the grace of God and that is won
by the purity of heart”.
The history of Hinduism in the 2nd half of the first millennium was influenced by two tendencies which seemed to contradict each other but whose synthesis actually led to the emergence of a kind of Hinduism which still exists today. On the one hand the period witnessed the rise of the great philosophical systems which were formulated in constant debates with Buddhists and Jains in the course of what has been termed as Brahmin Counter Reformation; on the other hand the same period produced the great popular movements of the Bhakti cults which often explicitly rejected Brahmin orthodoxy and monistic philosophy and aimed at salvation by means of pure devotion to a personal God, say Herman Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund in their “A History of India”. The movement is believed to have started from the south of India where Nayanars, and Alvars, a group of religious leaders emerged in the 9th century to teach the simple faith to the commoners. The Buddhism and Jainism, the sister religions of Hinduism carved out their own image within the Indian system. However during the course of time they tended to be too philosophic to be comprehended by a common man. Thus a spirit of Bhakti was needed to make the faith simple. Though Sankara dealt a death blow to Buddhism from the intellectual plane yet his philosophy remained difficult to be mastered by the general public. It was therefore on the spiritual and emotional basis of certain religious preachers that the people developed a taste for the devotion to a God, who decreed no division on the basis of caste, creed, colour and knowledge, wealth and status.
The entry of Arabs as of Muhammad bin Qasim in the
early part of the 8th century is thought to have marked its impact
on the religious attitude of the people of the South. And the revolt against
the Brahman hegemony may have derived its inspiration from the egalitarian
outlook of Islam that the Arabs carried with them wherever they went.Neverthless
Bhakti movement found its true exposition in the North of Indian during 13th
and continued up to the 17th century of the Christian era. A galaxy
of religious preachers known as Sants emerged to revisit the faith of Hinduism.
In most cases they were committed to purge Hinduism of the evils that they
thought had crept into it. They set out to challenge some of the well grounded
tenets of Hinduism like Varna System and Murti Puja. All these initiatives are
thought to be the influence of Islam and the presence of Muslims. According to
Amit Kumar Sharma, Islam seems to have strengthened the de-ritualizing and egalitarian
trends in medieval Hinduism, while Hindu philosophy seems to have strengthened
the mystical spiritual strain in Muslim religious thought. For example the
Bhakti movement initiated by the Alvars and Nayanars saints of South India
found strength in the context of Islam and Muslim dominance in North India. In
the same way, the mystic and devotional aspect of Islam was strengthened in the
philosophical milieu of Hinduism. Ramanand, Kabir, Nanak and Dara Shikoh played
a significant role in the spread of mutual understanding among the Hindu and
the Muslim masses.
In the words of Dr. Tara Chand, “Islam brought about astonishing
changes in the shape of Hinduism. According to him, Ramanuja, Ramanand,
Ballacharya and Vira Saiva sect were influenced by Islam”. The Lingyat Sect,
found in Karnataka was influenced by Islam, because the followers of this sect
don`t believe in the theory of rebirth, caste etc. of the Hindus. The people of
this sect bury their bodies like those of Muslims instead of burning them like
those of Hindus. Besides divorce and widow remarriages are also prevalent among
them like the Muslims. It appears that many of the religious preachers accepted
the influence of Sufism whom they thought as a revolt against orthodox Islam.
N.N. Bhattacharya comments: The Bhakti and Sufi movements questioned the
fundamentals and were instrumental in bringing about radical transformation of
socio-cultural structure and even the foundation of a new religion. It is
interesting to note that Guru Nanak`s movement began against religious
differences and gradually turned into a new religion. Dr. Radhakamal Mukherjee
echoes similar words in his `A History of Indian Civilization: Medieval and
Modern Synthesis`: “Kabir, Nanak, and Dadu shine in Indian religious history as
the only mystics and leaders who boldly sought to fuse Hinduism and Islam and
obtained a vast following from the mass of Hindu and Muslim population, all
equally attempted to purge Hindu and Muslim faiths of their superstitious and
external rituals”.
Whatever the basis of Bhakti Movement it is however
evident that it received the inspiration from Islam. The Sufi Silasilas (Sufi Orders)
of the medieval period especially Chisti order infused a new spirit among Hindus
and people of other faiths. The monotheistic concept of God, equality among
men, acts of charity, simplicity, love of God etc. that form the chief
characteristics of Bhakti movement can be attributed to Sufi influence or
Islamic influence at large on the `Sant` traditions of India. Borrowing words
from N.N. Bhattacharya: In the Punjab it was Guru Nanak and his slightly older
contemporary, Kabir who brought home to the Hindu society the corrupt and
meaningless practices which had crept [sic] into their social and religious
institutions. Both of them in their respective styles not only attacked upon
then prevailing social customs but also offered an alternative system as would
have enabled man to realize himself and his capacities to the best possible
extent. Of the two it is Guru Nanak who seems to have thoroughly diagnosed the
case of the Hindu community of his time and found out that a religious revival
was the only remedy which could save it from impending destruction.
While it may not be possible to refute the argument of
certain Sikh Scholars who contend that Bhakti reformers like Kabir are not the
`forerunners of Sikhism`, it cannot, at the same time, be denied that the Sant
Tradition which Nanak nourished and strengthened in the Punjab emanated from
the Bhakti movement in India.
Sikhism
Sikhism is the youngest religion that emerged in the
Indian Subcontinent. It was founded by Guru Nanak in the 16th
century. In the preceding pages we find Nanak as an important exponent of
Bhakti movement. Nanak like other religious teachers of the period strived to
purge Hinduism off the corrupt practices and dictatorship of Brahmans. In some
cases he is found to challenge the external forms of worship among Muslims as
Namaz, Hajj etc. that he thought were devoid of reverence. Guru Nanak thus
sought some sort of reconciliation between Hinduism and Islam. In the book
compiled by Ministry of Information and broadcasting, Jodh Singh in his
respective article entitled “ Guru Nanak`s Concept of God” mentions, “ Guru
Nanak in his hymns has used all the names which the Hindus, Muslims and yogins
of his times used for the Supreme Being. He calls Him Brahmin, Ishwara, Rama,
Allah, Khuda, Alakh, and Krishna to set at rest the controversy that raged
between the different creeds to prove that the name which they used was better
than the name used by others”. In his` `Medieval Bhakti Movements in India`,
N.N. Bhatacharya says, “ The Bhakti and Sufi movements questioned the
fundamentals and were instrumental in
bringing about radical transformation of socio-cultural structure and even the
foundation of new religion. It is interesting to note that Guru Nanak`s
movement began against religious differences and gradually turned into a new
religion.”
Whereas almost
all the exponents of Bhakti Movement left no stone unturned to acquaint people with the message of Bhakti, rejection
of image worship and the abolition of caste system, two men deserve the most of
our attention i.e. Kabir and Nanak. They not only led a vehement campaign
against image worship and class distinctions but equally made a strong plea for
Hindu-Muslim unity. The well known Sikh scholar, Khushwant Singh comments: “Sikhism
was born out of a wed-lock between Hinduism and Islam”. It is so because many
of the ideas preached by Nanak are propounded by Ramananda and his disciples
Kabir, Dhanna, Pipa, Sain and Ravidas. In his ` Sufism and Bhakti Movement:
Eternal Relevance` Hamid Hussain writes: Bhakti Movement generated clearly due
to Sufi Influence. Since Sikhism is the outcome of The Bhakti Movement, there
is an inherent linkage of Sufism and Sikhism. It was Punjab where initially
they came. Here Sufism flourished to an unprecedented extent. Also here was
born, probably chronologically the youngest religion of the world, Sikhism. The
123 verses found in the Guru Granth Sahab attributed to Baba Farid, the great
Sufi saint of Chistiyah Order indicate the influence of Sufism on Guru Nanak.
On the whole it can be said that Sikhism retains the
characteristics of both Hinduism and Islam. It believes in the doctrine of
rebirth, idea of Transmigration, and the concept of Maya[3]
and on the other hand it subscribes to the typical Islamic doctrine of Divine
Unity, Superiority of the Will of God over Karma[4],
negation of idolatry etc. The Mulmantra, the Fundamental Creed of Sikhism goes
as, “He is the sole Supreme Being; of Eternal manifestation; Creator, Immanent Reality;
without Fear, Without Rancour; Timeless Form; Unincarcerated; Self Existent;
Realized by the grace of the holy preceptor”.
Conclusion
Bhakti Movement marks the first well organised and
well directed effort to pave a way for the unity of religions, and Sikhism
offers the glaring example in this respect. The movement continued to inspire
Individuals, groups, and communities to merge the diverse teachings of various
religions to create a new faith in the past and it does so in the present as
well. The foundation of Din-i-Illahi by Akbar in the 16th century,
foundation of Brahmo Samaj, a monotheistic reformist and renaissance movement
of Hindu religion by Ram Mohan Roy in the first half of the 19th
century, likewise the adoption of Islamic and Christian religious
Practices by Ramakrishna Paramahamsa,
founder of Ramakrishna Order during nineteenth century , the common worship
introduced by two retired Professors of Canadian origin at the Mausoleum of
Hazrat Anayat Khan at New Delhi, where people of all faiths assemble to
highlight the teachings of their respective religions and sharing the concept
of Universal Worship, all are inspired by the great Bhakti Movement for all
these movements are committed to seek for the Unity of Religions. And it would
not be out of place to say that the Baha’i faith preached by Bahaullah in the second
half of the 19th century in the Middle East, and its extension
by his followers, adopts a fair amount of the attitude and methodology of
Bhakti Movement if not the entire.
References
1. Bhattacharya,
N.N, Medieval Bhakti Movements in India,
Munshiram Manohar publishers, New delhi,1989
2. Chandra,
Satish, Medieval India, Har-Anand
Publications, New Delhi, 2000
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Makhan Lal, The Din-i-Illahi or The
Religion of Akbar, Munshiram Manohar Publishers, New Delhi,1977
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J.K, Unique Quintessence of Indian
History, Unique Publishers, New Delhi,2012
5. Eaton,
Richard M, India`s Islamic Traditions
(711-1750), Oxford University Press, New delhi,2003
6. Gopal,
Ram, Hindu Culture During and After
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Delhi, 1994
7. Hussein,
Hamid, Sufism and Bhakti Movement:
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Surendra Singh, The Sikh Gurus and Their
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Frank Byron, The Idea of God in Early
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Herman and Rothermund, Dietmar, A History
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Radhakamal, A History of Indian
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W.H, Guru Nanak and the Sikh Religion,
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K.A, The Life and Times of Shaikh
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[1] Sant refers
to the religious preacher belonging to the great Bhakti Movement of the 13th
century India.`Sant Mat` points to a loosely associated group of teachers who
are driven by the loving emotions towards God, and egalitarianism as opposed to
the qualitative distinctions of the Hindu Caste system, and those between
Hindus and Muslims.
[2] Polydaemonism refers to the belief in a multitude of evil spirits
while Fetishism refers to the worship of an inanimate object supposed to be
with some magical powers.
[3] In an ordinary sense, the word ` Maya` means trickery, fraud or
deceit, however in the spiritual parlance, it refers to the unreality, distinct
from the reality represented by God or Brahman. God in His eternal and absolute
aspect is pure consciousness and His creation is a mere formation within that
consciousness.
[4] Karma literally means ` deed` or `act`, and more broadly signifies
the universal principle of cause and effect, action and reaction. In Hinduism
it is Karma that decides the fate of a human being in the succeeding lives to
come. The cycle of births (Transmigration of souls) is determined on the basis
of Karma.
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