By Akshay Chavan (2015)
This dissertation essay looks at the miniature paintings commissioned in the imperial atelier during the reign of Emperor Akbar, and attempts to look at the social, cultural and political undercurrents that make these paintings more culturally dynamic, in contrast to the rigid and formalized of Mughal paintings which were to develop under his successors. This essay also attempts to look at the personality of Emperor Akbar and how his personality, preferences, tastes and ambition were manifested in the paintings that he commissioned. The conquest of the Mughals in 1526 began a period of marked change in the culture and art in the Indian subcontinent. While it replaced the earlier established Sultanate dynasties, it also ushered in a cultural renaissance of the arts, most particularly in painting. Mughal court was a large employer and a showcase for the best and the finest products and artifacts in the empire. To gain a better understanding of the unique paintings and artifacts commissioned by Akbar, it is important to understand the broad content of the culture of visuality at Mughal court, origins of the Mughal atelier , and then a look at the personality and ambitions of Emperor Akbar, and how they may have influenced the paintings that he commissioned.
Visual Culture of the Mughal Court
The Mughals lived in a society of the spectacle organized by strict principles of visual order. George MiŶŶisale ;ϮϬϬϲͿ desĐƌiďes edžteŶsiǀelLJ the ͞highlLJ ǀisual͟ Đultuƌe at the Mughal Đouƌt . He also elaborates the historical, literary, biographical sources point to an almost limitless ordering of visual experiences. An overwhelming number of refined, luxury objects were produced for the Mughal elite, and in fact, an extraordinary cataloguing of all these things and of a wide range of other aspects of court life reflected the refinement of visual sensations (ibid).
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This is also Đoƌƌoďoƌated ďLJ Aďu͛l Fazl͛s ͚AiŶ-i Akbari, which has a detailed description of this obsessive visual ordering, described in the most poetic language (Attwood, 2004). It talks about elaborate hierarchy used to grade their favourite blood-red rubies and lush emeralds (with poetic words used to describe their hues) and their pearls were ordered in terms of lustre, size and weight and how closely they resembled the ideal of the perfect sphere. The spectrum of subtle shifts of colour in jade was subject to a fine visual ordering. Also, their rifles were sorted according to weight, sources of iron, manufacturer and place of manufacture; muskets were similarly organised into categories and were inlaid with gold and enamels; even imperial elephants were divided into groups according to their proportions and colour, and the same for horses, carpets and armour; their shawls were sorted according to colour beginning with the natural hues, off-white, red-gold and then on to blues and lilacs and last of all dove grey (ibid). From this, we can see how refinement of visual sensations was considered so important by the Mughal court.
At the Mughal court, folk tales, stories, legends, poetry and philosophy offered a canon of heroic and idealised behaviour such as courage in death, ideals of justice, mercy and power, and wisdom versus material wealth. These texts reflected how the elite wished to distinguish itself from other classes (Minnisale, 2006). Such literature also offered a system of symbolic stratification and etiquette. These aspects of ritual and ideal behaviour were visualised and fixed in Mughal painting with a language of spatial patterns and rhythms, that served to stimulate aesthetic appreciation, as well as enhance cultural memory (ibid). These conventions, ideas and rituals would have a profound impact on the painting conventions adopted by the artists and from certain dynamism from the time of Akbar, would like way to rigidity and hierarchy in reign of Shah Jahan.
Origins of Mughal Atelier
Bâbur defeated Ibrâhîm Lodî Sultan of Delhi (1517-1526) at Panipat in 1526, he added the Delhi dominions to his empire which now stretched from Jaunpur through the Punjab into Afghanistan and Central Asia. There is no evidence yet that he patronised artists (Losty, 2011). He was succeded by his son Humayun (1530-1540, 1555-1556). There is little evidence regarding his patronage of painting in the first ten years of his reign, although as with his father his love of books is well attested (Ibid). In exile after he was driven out of India by the Sher Shah Sur, he sought the help of Shah Tamasph(1524-1576) at Tabriz in 1544 for the recovery of his lost kingdom. He was exposed there to the work of the master artists of the court manuscript studio.
This was the beginning of his patronage of artists, in particular some of the earliest pages in the Gulshan Album (Gulistan Palace Library, Tehran) portray him and his young son Akbar (Beach, 1987). These were paiŶted ďLJ ͚Aďd as-Samad, one of the two artists along with Mr Sayyid Ali whom Humayun had asked Shah Tahmasp to be allowed to join his court, which they did in 1549.37. This was the beginning of the imperial Mughal atelier. All of early work in the Mughal atelier is still almost entirely Safavid in character, i.e. flat and highly decorative with similarly sized figures spread throughout the page (ibid). Mîƌ “aLJLJid ͚Alî ǁas oŶe of the juŶioƌ aƌtists ǁoƌkiŶg oŶ the Khaŵsa of Nizaŵi produced for Shah Tamasph in 1539-1543 (British Library), which Humayun presumably saw when he visited Shâh Tahmâsp in 1544.
Humayun returned to India from his base in Kabul in 1555 and re-estaďlished ĐoŶtƌol oǀeƌ his fatheƌ͛s dominions, but was killed six months later in a fall down the steps of his library in Delhi. The throne was assumed by his thirteen year old son Akbar (1556-1605). This was the dawn of a golden era in Mughal painting.
Akbar, the man and the ruler
When Akbar came to the throne in 1556 at the age of thirteen, the Mughal Empire was in a state of flux. Over his reign, he would consolidate it and extend it from Kandahar to Deccan. Solidifying Mughal control in Northern India by 1572, he was then able to focus on the creation of a new culture and a new way of thinking about art and the world. Despite being unable to read or write, Akbar established an unprecedented imperial atelier that was engaged in the production of sumptuous manuscript illuminations that illustrated court life, hunting and battle scenes, flora and fauna, portraits, history
painting, and religious and cultural works. His evolution as both a ruler and a person was crucial to the development of Mughal painting (Koch, 2001). It was his charismatic, curious nature that brought about more tolerance and exchange between Hindus and Muslims, opened India to more profound European aesthetics, and established the values and vocabulary, with the help of his courtiers and painters, of the new Mughal painting style (ibid).
Akbar’s Aatelier
The aƌt pƌoduĐed ďLJ Akďaƌ͛s atelieƌ ďeĐaŵe ǁaLJs iŶ ǁhiĐh Akďaƌ Đould ĐoŵŵuŶiĐate iŶ a Ŷeǁ ǀisual language his radical political, social, and religious synthesis and his power as divine ruler. Books themselves were indications of power (Koch, 2001. Because the materials were valuable and the preparation time was enormous, books represented tangible evidence of wealth, intelligence, and power. They were spoils of war, as well as ceremonial presentation objects. In addition, owning books represented the poǁeƌ aŶd kŶoǁledge of the possessoƌ ;iďidͿ. Despite Akďaƌ͛s illiteƌaĐLJ, he ǁas said to be ignorant of nothing reinforcing his supreme power as leader. At his death in 1605, Akbar left a library of aďout Ϯϰ,ϬϬϬ ďooks. Aďu͛l Fazl ƌelates this liďƌaƌLJ iŶ the Ain-I-Akbari:
͞ His MajestLJ͛s liďƌaƌLJ is diǀided iŶto seǀeƌal paƌts…EaĐh paƌt of the liďƌaƌLJ is suďdiǀided, aĐĐoƌdiŶg to the value of the books and the estimation in which the sciences are held of which the books treat. Prose books, poetical works, Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmirian, Arabic, are all separately placed. In this order they are also inspected. Experienced people bring them daily and read them before His Majesty, who heaƌs eǀeƌLJ ďook fƌoŵ ďegiŶŶiŶg to eŶd….theƌe aƌe Ŷo histoƌiĐal faĐts of the past ages, or curiosities of science, or interesting points of philosophy, with which His Majesty, a leader of impartial sages, is uŶaĐƋuaiŶted. ͞ (Attwood, 2004).
The value of books within Mughal and Persian tradition helps to explain the importance of Akďaƌ͛s atelier of painters. As symbols of power and for his own personal interests of curiosity, Akbar certainly promoted the production of illustrated manuscripts that not only revealed his power through their mere existence but also through documentation of his greatness (Koch, 2001). The manuscripts produced during the early years of his reign reflect the adventurous spirit of the age in dramatic and violent scenes of ďattles aŶd ĐoŶƋuests. Lateƌ iŵages ĐoiŶĐide ǁith Akďaƌ͛s iŶtelleĐtual aŶd spiƌitual pursuits discussed in depth above.
Akbar’s personal interest in Paintings
We kŶoǁ fƌoŵ the ǀaƌious ǁƌitteŶ aĐĐouŶts of Akďaƌ͛s ƌeigŶ hoǁ Đlose aŶ iŶteƌest he took iŶ the productions of the royal studio. Aďu͛l Fazl iŶ AiŶ-I-Akbari states
͚“iŶĐe [paiŶtiŶg] is an excellent source of both study and entertainment, His Majesty, from the time he came to an awareness of things, has taken a deep interest in painting and sought its spread and development. Consequently this magical art has gained in beauty. A very large number of painters has been set to work. Each week the several daroghas and bitikchis [superintendents and clerks] submit before the king the work done by each artist, and His Majesty gives a reward and increases the monthly salaries according to the exĐelleŶĐe displaLJed. … AŵoŶg the foƌeƌuŶŶeƌs oŶ this high ƌoad of kŶoǁledge
is Mîƌ “aLJLJid ͚Alî of Taďƌiz. He has leaƌŶt a little fƌoŵ his fatheƌ. WheŶ he oďtaiŶed the hoŶouƌ to seƌǀe His Majesty and thus gained in knowledge, he became renowned in his profession and bountiful in good foƌtuŶe. Nedžt theƌe is Khǁaja ͚Aďd as-Samad, the shirin qalam [sweet-pen] of Shiraz. Though he knew this art before he joined the royal service, the transmuting glance of the king has raised him to a more sublime level and his images have gained a depth of spirit.60 Under his tutelage many novices have ďeĐoŵe ŵasteƌs. TheŶ theƌe ǁas DasǁaŶta ǁho … used to dƌaǁ iŵages aŶd desigŶs oŶ ǁalls. OŶe daLJ the far-reaching glance of His Majesty fell on these things and, in its penetrating manner, discerned the spirit of a master working in them. Consequently, His Majesty entrusted him to the Khwaja. In just a shoƌt tiŵe he ďeĐaŵe ŵatĐhless iŶ his tiŵe aŶd the ŵost edžĐelleŶt … IŶ desigŶiŶg, paiŶtiŶg faĐes, colouring, portrait painting and other aspects of this art, Basawan has come to be uniquely excellent. MaŶLJ peƌspiĐaĐious ĐoŶŶoisseuƌs giǀe hiŵ pƌefeƌeŶĐe oǀeƌ DasǁaŶt. … … PeƌsiaŶ ďooks of ďoth pƌose aŶd poetƌLJ ǁeƌe deĐoƌated aŶd a gƌeat ŵaŶLJ laƌge aŶd ďeautiful ĐoŵpositioŶs ǁeƌe paiŶted …, His MajestLJ hiŵself haǀiŶg iŶdiĐated the sĐeŶes to ďe paiŶted.͛ (Attwood,2004)
Manuscript paintings commissioned by Akbar
Scholars like Milo Beach (1987) and JP Losty (2013), have divided his commissioned works between his early years (Pre-1590s period), in which he commissioned fantasy and adventure tales like Humzanama, Tuttinama and Darabnama and post-1590 commissions, which were generally historical works such as Tarikh-i Khandan-i Timuriyya, Chengiznama, and Akbarnama , and religious works such as translations of Ramayana, Mahabharata and Harivamsha.
The earliest manuscript that can be attributed to his reign is a Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot) (Beach, 1987). It is an anthology of short stories, ostensibly told by a parrot to its mistress on each of 52 successive nights. By continually catching her interest with a new and intriguing tale, he prevents her departure to meet with a lover during her husband's absence. It is best read as sheer entertainment.
Scholars agree that greatest, the most spectacular and perhaps the most valuable of all Imperial Mughal ŵaŶusĐƌipts eǀeƌ ĐoŵŵissioŶed ǁas uŶdouďtedlLJ Akďaƌ͛s HaŵzaŶaŵa, the tales of Amir Hamza. The tales, replete with monsters, and giants, heroes and villains, appear to have originated from Iran and from there spread to different regains, as widespread as Turkey and Indonesia where they were recited in popular gathering. Commissioned by Emperor Akbar, while he was still in his teens, it comprised of a remarkable 1400 images, each of huge size. The scale of the undertaking was even more impressive as the paintings were amongst the earliest products of a fledgling imperial studio which harnessed the talents of Indian artists to that of the émigrés from Iran. (Seyller, 2002)
Whereas other manuscripts and fit in one's hand and includes dozen or so folios, Hamzanama comprised of 1400 folios of 2 feet in height. By it's scope size and execution, Hamzanama lends itself to two very different kinds of viewing experience, as a part of a public recitation by storytellers and other a more intimate viewing of it's illustrations (ibid).
Akbar was still young enough at the conclusion of the Hamzanama project to relish adventure stories and had his artists illustrate various works that were full of fantastic encounters as well as fable books. These include Darabnama and similar works, from which pages survive of fantasy paintings from an
unknown adventure story of a prince being rescued by angels from a well and journeying to the land of the Zangis.
It is important to note that neither the Tutinama nor Hamzanama manuscript contains a contemporary olophon or date. The earliest Akbari manuscript with such an inscription is the Deval Rani Khizr Khan of 1568, a romance by the poet Amir Khusrau Dihlavi (1253-1325). A second dated manuscript, an Anwar i-Suhaili (Lights of Canopus) of 1571, contains 27 illustrations made for a translation from Sanskrit into Persian of a series of moral fables which also inspired Aesop. Two scenes in the volume are in almost unadulterated Bokharan style. Much smaller in size than the Hamzanama, the Anwar-i-Suhaili manuscript is more easily compared to the similarly scaled Tutinama. What makes this manuscript most important is that it is in Anwar-i-Suhaili that a synthesis of Persian and local indigenous styles is first seen (Seyller, 1980).
Afteƌ ϭϱϳϮ, Akďaƌ͛s taste ďegaŶ to ĐhaŶge. Akbar had a deep personal interest in spirituality, which he tried to reconcile with Mughal rationalism. In 1575, he established the Ibadatkhana ('House of Worship'), where an increasing range of religions was discussed, with Shiites, Hindus, Parsis, Jains, and Christians all participating (Seyller, 2002). The Mughal myth of kingship acquired a distinct Sufi dimension when Akbar was declared the Perfect Man who establishes Universal Peace "sulk ikhul" between Muslims and Hindus." (ibid). This would play an important role in influencing his later commissions of translations of Ramayana and Mahabarata. The intellectual experimentation in these years, together with the undeniable power now wielded by the emperor, led Akbar to proclaim a new religious system, the Din-ilahi (Divine Faith). This attempted to reconcile various of the beliefs he had explored, but also stated that the emperor was the ultimate authority in the interpretation of religious doctrine - a claim not easily acceptable to the orthodox clergy. From here on, a change in the nature of texts the texts being illustrated will show clearly that art would soon be used to proclaim as well as to reinforce Akbar's authority (Beach, 1987). While the Tutinama and Hamzanama manuscripts were at least nominally adventure stories and thus sheer entertainment, historical subject matter and texts related to the religious and literary traditions of both Islam and Hinduism were to be given special prominence in the royal library after 1580.
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A gƌeat Akďaƌi ĐoŵŵissioŶ ǁas the ͚‘azŵŶaŵa͛, a tƌanslation into Persian of a great Hindu epic, Mahabharata (literally "Great India"), originally written in Sanskrit. The project, commissioned by Akbar, began with the assembling at Fatehpur-Sikn of learned Hindus, who could recite the text orally. This particular manuscript, reportedly with 176 illustrations, was finished by 1586.
The imperial Razmnama project was transitional to a new direction which Mughal manuscript painting took in the 1580s (Beach, 1987), when Akbar was no longer primarily interested in the fantasy adventure stories of his youth – the Hamzanama or Tutinama, for example. It was the rational and historical that was henceforth to dominate his interest. In 1582, he ordered explicitly that "the rational contents of different religions and faiths, should be translated in [from] the language of each, and that the rose garden of the traditional aspects of each religion should, as far as possible, be cleared of the thorns of bigotry."5 His interest in the Razmnama, therefore, perfectly balanced his wish to learn about traditional India and his waning concern for fantastic or mythological narratives.͟
Akbar wanted more sober stuff and it was at this stage that his artists began work on a series of historical works that lasted throughout the next decade, all arranged in a logical order to a preconceived plaŶ ;JP LostLJ, ϮϬϭϯͿ: the histoƌies of Akďaƌ͛s Tiŵuƌid aŶĐestoƌs fƌoŵ Tiŵuƌ ;soŵetiŵe ďefoƌe ϭϱϴϰ, Tarikh-i Khandan-i TiŵuƌiLJLJaͿ, of his gƌaŶdfatheƌ Baďuƌ ;ϭϱϴϵͿ, aŶd of his fatheƌ͛s aŶd his oǁŶ ƌeign, the Akbarnama (1590-95). After that it was the history of the Genghisid side of his family, of the Timurids taken up, with a Chingiznama in and also a history of the previous millennium in 1591-ϵϮ ;Ta͛ƌikh-i ͚AlfiͿ, marking the 1000 years of the Muslim calendar.
A Ŷote ŵust ďe ŵade that all the ĐoŵŵissioŶs ƌeǀeal Akďaƌ͛s eŶthusiasŵ foƌ Ŷatuƌe aŶd people (Welch,1987). He spurred his artists to characterize men and animals as profoundly and revealingly as possible. His interest in the human character and soul is reflected in the commission of a great portrait album which is sadly now scattered. About this Abu'l-Fazl remarks, "Those that have passed away have received a new life, and those who are still alive have immortality promised them͟;iďidͿ. It is hard to imagine the impact such an album would have made in those times.
Cross cultural influences in Mughal atelier under Akbar
In Akbar's atelier, painters from different regions of India worked together, and Abu'l-FazI takes pains to point out the excellence of the Indian masters. Akbar actively encouraged diversity, innovation and experimentation in painting. Most painters working in atelier were Indian, trained within their own traditions. Diplomatic relation with Safavid Shah was maintained and a steady stream of Persian painters and court officials came into the service of Mughals. , reinforcing the already strong Persian links. As Abul Fazl mentions " Most excellent painters are to be found and masterpieces, worthy of Bihzad, may be placed at the side of the wonderful works of European painters who have found world wide fame.... More than hundered painters have become masters of the art, whilst the number of those who are approaching perfection or those who are middling are very large. This is especially true of Hindus, their picture surpass our conception of things. Few, indeed, in the whole world are found equal to theŵ.͟ (ibid)
Fƌoŵ the ďegiŶŶiŶg of the Mughal atelieƌ uŶdeƌ HuŵaLJuŶ till iŶitial LJeaƌs of Akďaƌ͛s ƌeigŶ, aƌtists tƌaiŶed at the Safavid court in Tabriz are often considered of critical importance to the development Mughal paiŶtiŶg ;“ouĐek, ϭϵϴϳͿ. EaƌlLJ ǁoƌks of Akďaƌ͛s atelieƌ like the iŶitial set of HaŵzaŶaŵa paiŶtiŶgs, appear to derive from the style and compositions popular at the Safavid court (Seyller, Thakson, 2002). Most influential were Persian landscape schemes dividing the picture into several levels, each represented by a distinct cell of space. Also popular was a composition showing a palace enclave with various figures grouped in and around pavilions. (Soucek, 1987).
The Hamzanama project dominated the studio's early years and went on for almost 15 years. The later years of Hamzanama project production, we observe the trend toward merging Persianate, Central Asian, regional Indian, and European painting traditions (Seyller, Thakson, 2002). Some thirty artists are mentioned as having worked on the Hamzanâma and must have been recruited from existing workshops throughout India where they had worked in the various Sultanate, Indo-Persian or Early Rajput styles (Losty, 2011). Although no physical evidence is left, it is possible that some of these artists were used to
more large scale compositions on cloth or on walls. The great early Mughal artist Dasvant, for example, we are told by Abû l Fazl, was a mural painter recruited by Akbar himself to the studio.(ibid)
No artists names are inscribed on any early Mughal manuscript other than the Tuttinama (Cleveland Museum). Some twelve artists are identified therein by name, including Dasvant, Basâvan and Târa who aƌe iŶĐluded iŶ the list of gƌeat aƌtists ŵeŶtioŶed ďLJ Aďul͛l Fazl, ǁhile the ǁoƌk of aŶotheƌ thiƌtLJ-three has been identified(ibid). After praising Dasvant and Basâvan in his Âin -i Akbarî, Abûl Fazl continues: ͚The otheƌ famous and excellent painters are Kesu, Lal, Mukund, Miskin, Farrukh the Qalmaq, Madho, JagaŶ, Mahes, KheŵkaƌaŶ, Taƌa, “aŶǁla, HaƌďaŶs aŶd ‘aŵ.͛ The Ŷaŵes of ŵost of these aƌtists aƌe inscribed by librarians beside their paintings on the succeeding manuscripts, i.e. the Dârâbnâma (begun ca.1580, British Library) and the Razmnâma (begun 1582, City Palace Museum, Jaipur) and hence they may reasonably be expected to have been among the artists who joined the studio for the production of the Hamzanama(ibid).
By 1590s, master artists were required to produce individual work to the most highly finished state and their work was included in manuscripts exquisitely decorated with illuminations and gilded figurative borders. These are painted in the fully mature, eclectic Mughal style, in which all its elements, Iranian, Indian and European, are now fully assimilated into a balanced, harmonious whole (ibid). In the 1590s, Akďaƌ͛s aƌtists staƌted seƌiouslLJ iŶǀestigatiŶg poƌtƌaituƌe, uŶdeƌ the iŶflueŶĐe of EuƌopeaŶ poƌtƌait prints which had been flooding into the Mughal court. Europeans began to appear at the Mughal court. Artists began to draw them and they even became the subjects of album paintings. (ibid)
Summary
The edžtƌaoƌdiŶaƌLJ paiŶtiŶgs fƌoŵ Akďaƌ͛s atelieƌ did Ŷot emerge as an isolated burst of creativity. It emerged out of a social, religious and cultural context. The visual culture of the Mughal court and the emphasis on visual extravagance, as more singularly the dynamic inquisitive personality of Emperor Akbar and his staunch desire to communicate his ideas across the political space, took forms of books, manuscripts and paintings. The dynamism and openness of his ideas were reflected in the choice of subject matter as well as innovation in painting techniques. A younger Akbar was interested in adventure and fantasy tales, and hence, pre 1590s paintings reflect this. Post 1590s, changing iŶtelleĐtual tastes, aŶd ǁell as Akďaƌ͛s aŵďitioŶ to spƌead his ideas aĐƌoss the Đouƌt made the shift in commissions to religious and historical texts. Also, the early Persian influence on paintings made way for Hindu and even European influences. These would not have been permitted without the explicit permission of the patron, Akbar. Infact, Ain-i-Akbari emphasizes the personal interest which the emperor took in his atelier aŶd it͛s ǁoƌk. Thus, we can conclude by saying that these Mughal paintings ǁeƌe so ĐloselLJ aŶd iŶtƌiŶsiĐallLJ liŶked, oƌ peƌhaps eǀeŶ aŶ edžteŶsioŶ of, theiƌ patƌoŶ, Akďaƌ͛s personality.
Bibliography:
Minissale, Gregory(2006) Images of Thought: Visuality in Islamic India, 1550–1750
Corinne Attwood (2004) The Empire of the Great Mughals, History, Art and Culture (London: Reaktion Press)
Beach, Milo(1987). Early Mughal Painting. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard University Press, 1987.
Beach, Milo (1992), The New Cambridge History of India, I: 3, Mughal and Rajput Painting. Ebba Koch(2001), Mughal Art and Imperial Ideology: Collected Studies, OUP 2001
Priscilla P. Soucek(1987). Persian Artists in Mughal India: Influences and Transformations. Muqarnas, Vol. 4 (1987), pp. 166-181
John William Seyller; W M Thackston(2002); The adventures of Hamza : painting and storytelling in Mughal India, Freer Gallery of Art.; Arthur M. Sackler Gallery (Smithsonian Institution)
John William Seyller (1980). Image and illustration in the School of Oriental and African Studies Anwar-i Suhaili , OUP
John William Seyller (2001) Pearls of the parrot of India : the Walters Art Museum, Khamsa of Aŵīƌ Khusraw of Delhi
J.P Losty (2011) ͚IŶdiaŶ PaiŶtiŶg fƌoŵ ϭ5ϬϬ-ϭ575͛ in Beach, M.C., Fischer, E., and Goswamy, B.N., Masters of Indian Painting, Artibus Asiae, Zurich, 2011
J.P. Losty (2013) A PƌiŶĐe͛s ELJe. Iŵpeƌial Mughal PaiŶtiŶgs fƌoŵ a PƌiŶĐelLJ Collection. Francesca Galloway
Stuart Cary Welch (1987), The Emperors' album: images of Mughal India. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1987
Appendix
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Leviathan attacks Hamza and his men Part of the Hamzanama series of paintings commissioned by Akbar. An example of pre 1590s kind of fantasy paintings. |
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Krishna defeats the thousand-armed Demon Bana Illustration from a royal manuscript of the Harivamsa made for Emperor Akbar. An example of post 1590s period, when importance was given to religious and historical works. |
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The Lion's Court, from an Anwar-i-Suhaili Anwar-i-Suhaili, a Persian translation of tales of Panchatantra is among the earliest manuscripts in which a synthesis of Persian and indigenous Indian styles can be seen. |
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