POLITICAL INTERACTION BETWEEN THE SULTANATE OF DELHI AND RAJPUTANA AND CENTRAL INDIA
Sneha Slathia
The Turkish possessions in India led to the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi. By 1210 A.D., the Turks become familiar with the region of Rajputana and the Central India, their economic resources and various trade routes. Minhaj tells that Iltutmish ascended the throne and established his power over the land that had been governed by Aibak – the territories of Delhi, Badaun, Awadh, Banaras and the Siwalikh region.[1] No doubt, the Turkish Sultan aimed at the expansion of their territory and for this purpose conquests were necessary. Rajputana, covered by hills and desert and with too little of fertility, was not a very attrracting object to any conqueror. From the military point of view, political history is largely concerned with wars; wars and geography are very closely connected. It seems that the root of the conflicts between the Sultans of Delhi and the Rajput princes lay really in the peculiar geographical position of Rajputana and its importance from military point of view. If the Delhi Sultans wanted to reach the fertile Gujarat and to the prosperous Deccan, they had to pass through Rajputana and had to encounter opposition from the Rajputs. And Rajputs were the indigenous warrior and ruling race in India, so that in order to establish the Turkish Empire firmly, encountered with the Rajput became necessary. Thus, Iltutmish made further conquests in order to extend his power and firmly establish the Sultanate of Delhi.
Conquest of Jalor under
Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish
According to Hasan Nizami, Iltutmish marched towards the fort of Jalor with his leading officers such as Rukn-ud-din Hamza, Izz-ud-din Bakhtiyar and Nasir-ud-din Mardan Shah in the early year of his reign. Udi Shah (Udai Sinha), ruler of Jalor surrendered and thus captured the fort and the Sultan granted him his life and restored the fortress to him and in return, Raja presented ‘an hundred camels and twenty horses, in the name of tribute’ and Iltutmish returned back to Delhi.[2]
Conquest of
Ranthambhor under Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish
In 1226 A.D., Iltutmish started the expeditions to recover the lost territories. Firstly, he marched towards the fort of Ranthambhor which was famous for its impregnability. Minhaj tells that according to tradition, seventy rulers had failed to conquer it. However, Iltutmish conquered the fort of Ranthambhor in 1226 A.D.[3] It was a great achievement for him, as it gave the Sultan a stronghold in Rajputana.\
Conquest of
Mandore under Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish
In 1227 A.D., Iltutmish proceeded against the fort of Mandore in the Siwalikh region and conquered it. Iltutmish established military stations there.
Conquest of
Gwalior under Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish
During the time period of Muhammad Ghori, Gwalior had been occupied, and Iltutmish had held it as his first assignment; but could not be retained and was lost subsequently. In 1231 A.D., Iltutmish advanced to the fort of Gwalior and besieged it. It was strongly defended by Mangal Deo, the Parihara ruler, mentioned by Hasan Nizami (possibly Mangal Deva or Malaya Varmadeva) for eleven months. Eventually, in 1232 A.D., it was conquered when at night; Mangal Deva evacuated the fort and fled. Moreover, Minhaj gave details about the administrative system made by Iltutmish which included the appointment of Ziya-ud-din Junaidi as Amir-i-Dad; Rashid-ud-din as Sipah-salar and Minhaj Siraj was put incharge of the Qazi, Khatib and Imam.[4]
Raid on Kalinjer
by Taisi under Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish
Later, Iltutmish assigned the iqta of Sultankot and Bayana along with the charge of the Gwalior fort to Malik Nusrat-ud-din Taisi. Taisi was required to be remained in the fort of Gwalior but the contingents of Kannauj, Mehr and Mahaban were placed under his command, so that he could plundered the territories of Kalinjer and Chanderi. Gwalior was used by the Iltutmish, as the base of plundering raids in to the neighbouring areas. In 1233-34 A.D., Taisi made attack on Kalinjer and the Raja of Kalinjer possibly Tralokya Varma left the defence of his fort to his officers and fled and Taisi plundered a number of towns and obtained a vast amount of booty and also captured the Raja’s standard and kettledrums. But on the way return, he was attacked by Rana Chahir Ajari[5]; who stationed his men on the passes, which the mountain torrents had made. By great exertion, Taisi was able to extricate his forces and reached Gwalior.
Conquest of Malwa
under Sultan Shamsuddin Iltutmish
In 1234-35 A.D., the campaign was
launched by Iltutmish against Malwa. According to Minhaj, the town and the
fortress of Bhilsa were occupied and an idol temple whose construction had
taken three hundred years was demolished. From there, he advanced towards
Ujjain- Nagiri and also destroyed the temple of Mahakal Deva.[6] It
was a predatory raid, as the Paramaras dynasty had not suffered any territorial
loss. Then, Iltutmish also advanced against Bayana and subdued it and returned
to Delhi.
On 1236 A.D., Iltutmish breathed his last. By 1236 A.D., Turkish Empire was extended by the victories achieved by Iltutmish which includes the regions like Badaun, Banaras, Ranthambhor, Jalor, the fortress of Mandore, Fort of Bhilsa, Malwa and the fort of Ujjain-Nagiri of Rajputana and the Central India. After his death, civil war broke among his successors which led to rebellions broke out in different parts of the Turkish Empire.
Campaigns under
Raziya Sultan
When Raziya Sultan ascended the throne, her first campaign against the Rajputs was against Ranthambhor which was recaptured by the Rajput chief. Minhaj Siraj tells that Malik Qutab-ud-din Husain, son of Ali Ghuri was appointed to march against the Rajput chief of Ranthambhor and appeared that he conducted his forces to withdraw all Turkish Maliks and officers from the fort and returned back to Delhi.[7] Thereafter, a campaign to Gwalior was launched which was equally abortive. This gave serious setback to the prestige of Delhi Sultans; and the Chauhans again increased their influence in the whole of north-eastern Rajputana. In alliance with the predatory Mewatis, the Chauhans started aggressive guerrilla warfare against the Iqtadars of the Delhi Sultans posted in different regions of the Rajputana and the Central India.
Campaigns under
Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud
After Raziya, it was during the reign
of Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud that steps had been taken against the Rajputs
rulers or made campaigns against them. On 1247-48 A.D.., a campaign was taken
to the region situated in the Doab, Minhaj states that Balban led the forces to
Talsindah, a fortified and a strong fort built by a local ruler, within limit
of Kannauj and was captured after stiff fight.[8]
After that, when the Turkish forces reached Kara on 1248 A.D. and from Kara,
Balban was sent against a ruler; ‘Dalki and Malki’ given by Minhaj; who was a
Rana of the territory between the Jumna and Kalinjer. The Rana defended his
place but fled at night. Balban collected huge booty in the form of slaves –
women and children and also others objects and returned back to Delhi.[9]
In 1248-1249 A.D., a large army was sent under Balban and the Maliks to attack Ranthambhor and to plundered Kohayah (skirts of) of Mewat and also all the territories of Bahar Deva, the Raja of Ranthambhor. Minhaj’s account informed that the Malik Baha-ud-din Aibek, was killed by Rajput army at the foot of the Ranthambhor fort[10]; which shows the failure of the campaign of Ranthambhor. Again, in 1251-1252 A.D., Nasir-ud-din Mahmud sent Turkish army towards Gwalior, Chanderi, Narnol and Malwa. Minhaj gave details about this campaign that Jahar Deva of Ijar, the Raja of that region; had five thousand horsemen and two lakhs of footmen was defeated and the fort of Narnol was plundered and destroyed, which was constructed by him.[11] It seems that it was merely a plundering raid and did not have a purpose to destroy Jahar Deva’s power. Towards the end of the 1254-1255 A.D., the Sultan marched against the rebels of Katehr (Rohilkhand) who had killed Razi-ul-Mulk Izz-ud-din Damishi and were severely punished.[12] In 1266-67 A.D., Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died and Ulugh Khan ascended the throne with the title of Ghiyas-ud-din Balban. He did not make any fresh expeditions and only worked for the consolidation of the empire. After him, his successors also did not adopt any expansionist policy and also were not able to consolidate the empire and there was a dynastic change.
Campaigns under Sultan
Jalaluddin Khilji
Khilji dynasty was founded by Jalaluddin Firoz Khilji in 1290 A.D. In the same year of his accession, Jalaluddin Khilji led an expedition in to the Rajputana against the Chauhans whose power was centred in the region of Ranthambhor.
Conquest of
Ranthambhor and capture of Jhain under Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji
Hammir Deva had started territorial
expansionist policy and had defeated the Gond Raja of Garha Mandla and
compelled him to pay tribute and also attacked Raja Bhoj II of Ujjain and
captured his capital. While passing through Ajmer, Pushkar, Sāmbhar and
Khandela, he captured these places. His military expansionist policy seemed to
have made Jalauddin Khilji so much worried that he ordered to march against
Hammir Deva in order to stop his activities.
Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji marched with
a large army against the fortress of Ranthambhor. According to Amir Khusrau,
Sultan marched from Siri to Ranthambhor, passing through Lohravat[13]
marching via Chandaval[14],
Rewari and he entered the Rajputana.[15]
Then, Sultan sent a group of soldiers to gain information about the Raja’s
territory and the army began to plunder the neighbourhood of Jhain, using
poisoned arrows and killing many persons.[16]
Then, it was decided to attack Jhain first. According to Amir Khusrau, Jalal-ud-din
Khilji sent a force of 1000 men under officers like Malik Khurram; Malik
Qutlagh-tigin; Azam Mubarak, the Amir of Narnaul; Ahmed Sarjandar and Abaji
Akhurbeg. When the news of Turkish attacks reached Jhain, the Raja of Jhain
sent his experienced warrior, Gurdan Saini with the force of 10,000 Rawats to
check the advancement of the Turks. But after a severe fight, he was killed and
the army was dispersed. The Raja evacuated the Jhain fortress and retired to
Ranthambhor. The Turkish army returned back to Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji and
presented before him, the plundered booty in the form of armour, horses, swords
etc. After three days, Jalaluddin Khilji himself entered Jhain. According to
Amir Khusrau, Sultan entered the palace and greatly admired the beautiful
sculptures, carvings and paintings on stone and wood. He also invested the
temples ornamented with elaborate work in gold and silver. He ordered for their
destruction and two large bronze images of Brahma,
were broken in to pieces and the fragments were distributed among officers for
throwing them at the gates of Jama Masjid at Delhi.[17]
Then, another army contingent was sent under Mahmud Sarjandar to plunder Malwa
and after crossing the rivers Chambal and Kuwari, the Turkish army arrived in
Malwa and destroyed number of temples and then returned with a large quantity
of booty.[18]
According to Barani, the Raja of Ranthambhor with all his Rawats took refuge in the fort of Ranthambhor. The Sultan, from his camp at Jhain, ordered for the construction of war-engines like Maghrabi, Sabat (tunnels) and Gargach[19] and himself, arrived from Jhain to investigate the fort of Ranthambhor but returned back to Jhain, on the same day. While the work of siege was in progress, he found that the fort of Ranthambhor as impregnable fort and considered the value of the siege in terms of the sufferings of his troops. So, he ordered for withdrew. But his Malik Ahmed Chap argued that if they withdrew without taking the fort, the Raja of Ranthambhor will get embolden by this act of Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji. But the Sultan had made his mind to return and refused to risk the hair of a single soldier for ten such forts and ordered an immediate withdrawal.[20] When Jalaj-ud-din Khilji returned to Delhi on 1292 A.D., the fortress of Jhain was also lost, thus the whole campaign failed in terms of territorial expansion but got success in plundering and gathering huge booty.
Conquest of
Mandore under Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji
Barani mentioned the march of Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji to Mandore[21] and subjugated it and plundered the neighbouring areas and returned. Afterwards, Sultan again marched a second time to Jhain and plundered it and returned back victorious.[22]
Conquest of Bhilsa
under Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji
With the permission of Sultan Jalaluddin
Khilji, Alauddin Khilji proceeded to Vidishi (Bhilsa)[23].
According to Amir Khusrau, Alauddin Khilji left Kara and cleared the road to
Ujjain on which the town of Bhilsa was situated. His sudden appearance
frightened the inhabitants who make them to conceal their idols in the bed of
the river Betwa to save them from the Turkish army but after the conquests, Alauddin
drew out the idols from the river.[24]
According to Barani, after breaking a
number of temples and capturing enormous booty, Alauddin proceeded to Delhi
with a variety of articles of plunder together with a massive idol which
pleased the Sultan.[25]
Barani mentions that in 1296 A.D., Sultan Jalaluddin Khilji proceeded with an army to the neighbourhood of Gwalior and stayed there for some time. While at Gwalior, he was informed that Alauddin had attacked Deogiri, and was returning to Kara with a rich booty.[26] Then, Jalaluddin Khilji went to appreciate Alauddin at Kara, while he was killed and Alauddin proclaimed himself the ruler and ascended the throne on 1296 A.D.
Political
condition of Rajputana and Central India on the eve of Alauddin Khilji’s reign:
During the reign of Alauddin Khilji, the political condition of Rajputana and Central India was in crisis as most of the regions were independent. The prosperous Gujarat was ruled by the Baghelas Rajputs and the various kingdoms of Rajputana were also independent, of one another and of the Sultanate of Delhi. No Turkish ruler had been successful in completely subjugating any of them and on the other hand, the existence of states like Chittor and Ranthambhor was an open challenge to the authority of the Sultanate. In central India, Malwa, Dhar, Ujjain and the vast tracts of Bundelkhand were still out the control of the Delhi Sultanate and enjoyed perfect independence. Thus, Gujarat, Chittor and Ranthambhor, all had to be conquered repeatedly.
Conquest of Gujarat
under Sultan Alauddin Khilji
Sultan Alauddin Khilji’s first
territorial expedition was against the Gujarat. The region of Gujarat is one of
the most fertile regions of India, at that time. In its towns, brisk and lively
trade flourished and its chief port of Cambay carried on trade and commerce
with foreign countries like Arabia and Persia. Wassaf describes Gujarat, which
is commonly called Kambayat, contains 70,000 villages and towns, all populous
and the people abound in wealth and luxuries.[27]
After the fall of the Solankis
dynasty, the Vaghelas ruled from 1242 A.D. According to the tradition recorded
by a Rajput bard, Nainsi; Madhava, adviser of the ruler of Gujarat, Raja Karan,
invited Alauddin to attack Gujarat because he had abducted his wife, during his
temporary absence from the capital of the kingdom. But the most probable reason
seems, the economic prosperity of Gujarat which would enable Alauddin Khilji to
conduct territorial expeditions and helped in the consolidation of Sultanate as
like the enormous wealth plundered from Deogiri helped Alauddin Khilji in
ascending the throne of Delhi.
During the reign of Raja Karan
Vaghelas, Alauddin despatched a large army for the conquest of Gujarat. Barani
tells that the command of the expedition was given to the generals Ulugh Khan
and Nusrat Khan. Nusrat Khan advanced from Delhi and Ulugh Khan was ordered to
march from Sindh, joined the force under Nusrat Khan and marched on Gujarat.
According to K.S.Lal, Ulugh Khan attacked Jaisalmer, during his march and
joined Nusrat Khan near Chittor. The straight route from Delhi to Gujarat lay
through Jalor and the Sultan requested the Raja Kanhara Deva of Jalor to allow
passage to the Turkish army through his territory but the latter refused.
Consequently, the joint force marched through the Chittor and after crossing
river Banas captured the fort of Radosa.[28]
On their arrival in Gujarat, they started on the usual
course of plunder. According to Barani, the whole city of Anhilwara was
plundered. Raja Karan Vaghelas fled from Nahrwala and went to Ram Deva of
Deogiri. The wives and daughters, the treasures and elephants of Raja Karan,
fell in to the hands of the Alauddin Khilji’s army.[29]
According to Amir Khusrau, one part of the army started in pursuit of the ruler
and the other marched towards the temple of Somnath.
The temple of Somnath which had been
rebuilt by Kumarapala (1143-74) was demolished. The wealth of this renowned
temple was siege, its idol broken but the biggest idol was carried to Delhi and
the summons to prayers was pronounced so loud, in this temple that they heard
it in Mecca and Medina.[30]
On the Jain accounts of Chandra Prabha and Kanhad-de-Prabandh, the Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan
destroyed hundreds of towns like Asavalli ( Asaval, a village near Ahmedabad);
Vanmanthali (Vanthali) and Surat and plundered a number of monasteries, palaces
and temples in Gujarat.[31]
Then, Nusrat Khan proceeded to Kambayat (Cambay). According to Barani, Nusrat Khan
extracted large quantities of jewels and precious articles from the merchants and
other men of the city.[32] It
was here that the slave Kafur was forcibly snatched away from his master who
had bought him for a thousand Dinars.
Barani in Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi and Amir Khusrau in Khazain-ul-Futuh confirmed
the ravaging and plundering of Nahrwala and the whole Gujarat.
Thus, according to Ferishta, they
appointed governors and leaving part of the army for their defence, returned to
Delhi.[33]
Alp Khan was appointed as the governor of Gujarat. Their booty comprised of
Kamla Devi, the beautiful queen of Raja Karan; his daughters; a large number of
prisoners of both sexes; Kafur Hazar dinari and a large amount of gold,
jewels and other valuable articles. Besides, each soldier had plundered
sufficient wealth for himself. But in the course of the return journey to
Delhi, the army took the straight road via Jalor, probably to deal with Kanhara
Deva who had refused the passage.
According to Barani, Ulugh Khan and Nusrat Khan returned with great booty, but on their way they provoked their soldiers to revolt by demanding from them a fifth of their spoils; besides they had already realised for themselves. The gold and silver, and jewels and valuables, which the men had taken were all demanded and ill treatments were employed which drove the soldiers against them. In the army, there were many Amirs and horsemen who were Mongols and got converted, now called “New Muslims’. They joined and killed Malik Azz-ud-din, brother of Nusrat Khan and Amir-i-Hajib of Ulugh Khan and proceeded towards the tent of Ulugh Khan but he escaped and the mutineers killed a son of the Sultan’s sister, who was asleep in the tent, whom they mistook for Ulugh Khan.[34] Ulugh Khan escaped to the tent of Nusrat Khan and the two generals with their loss of mind ordered drums to be beaten. Loyal soldiers put on their armours and collected in the front of Nusrat Khan’s tent. Thus, the mutineers get dispersed and fled. Their leader, Muhammad Shah and Kahbru sought shelter with Rana Hammir of Ranthambhor, while Yalhaq and Burraq went to Karan, the vanquished king of Gujarat then staying in Nanburbar, as a guest of Ram Deva of Devagiri.[35] The mutiny of the troops had proved abortive; even so it had terrified the generals and without demanding any more share proceeded towards Delhi.
Conquest of
Jaisalmer under Sultan Alauddin Khilji
After getting success in Gujarat, Alauddin Khilji turned his attention towards the Rajput states, all of which were independent of the authority of the Sultanate of Delhi. Contemporary Persian chronicles make no mention of conquest of Jaisalmer, but is mentioned in the Bardic literature and the Tarikh-i-Masumi, a history of Sindh in Persian. According to Tarikh-i-Masumi, the army of Alauddin raid Jaisalmer on its way to Gujarat (1299). As Ulugh Khan was ordered to proceed towards the campaign of Gujarat from Sindh; he should march through the way of Jaisalmer. When he arrived in Jaisalmer with the army, he captured that fort and done massacre there. Leaving behind, two hundred cavalrymen in the fort of Jaisalmer and with the rest of the army joined the army at Gujarat.[36]
Conquest of
Ranthambhor under Sultan Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin Khilji marched against Ranthambhor[37]. Ranthambhor was the state which would be selected for the trial of strength with the Rajputs; firstly, because of its nearness to Delhi; secondly, because of the failure of Jalaluddin to capture it and thirdly, because of its reputed impregnability. Moreover, the Mongols rebel Muhammad Shah and his brother Kahbru, the leader of the mutiny near Jalor, while returning to Delhi from the expedition of Gujarat had been given shelter by the Rana of Ranthambhor. Therefore, The Rana of Ranthambhor was acting as the shelter of the Anti- Sultanate elements. At the time of Alauddin’s expedition, Ranthambhor was ruled by the Chauhan prince Hammir Deva. Turkish rulers of Delhi Sultanate had repeatedly tried to establish their authority in Ranthambhor but without success.
Barani tells that in 1300 A.D., Alauddin
Khilji ordered Ulugh Khan, who held Bayana to advanced against Ranthambhor and
Nusrat Khan who held Kara was ordered to collect all forces of Kara and march
to the assistance of Ulugh Khan.[38]
On the way joint armies captured and plundered Jhain without encountering any
resistance. Before arriving in Ranthambhor, Ulugh Khan sent a message to Hammir
Deva to surrender the fugitives or they will attack Ranthambhor. But Hammir Deva
declined to betray his guests into the hands of those who were determined to
kill them and did not want the Sultan’s enmity, but he was not afraid of it
either.
No sooner did Ulugh Khan received Rana
Hammir’s reply, they encamped in the neighbourhood of the fortress and ordered
construction of entrenchments and Gargach[39].
One day, Nusrat Khan approached the fort to direct the construction of a Pashib[40]
and Gargach. A stone discharged from a,
Maghrabi in the fort struck him and he got wounded and died two or three days
after.[41]
Taking advantage of the circumstances of Nusrat Khan’s death, Rana Hammir Deva
marched out from the fort and gave battle, having collected within a short
time, 2,00,000 men. With this force, he compelled Ulugh Khan to retreat to
Jhain with great loss.[42]
When Alauddin Khilji got information of this defeat, he decided to march the
Ranthambhor. The Sultan proceeded towards Ranthambhor with a large army and
halted at Tilpat[43]
and go for hunting. During this time, he got wounded by a conspiracy hatched
against him. When he recovered of his wounds, he continued his march towards
Ranthambhor, where he was joined by Ulugh Khan and the siege was pushed on with
full vigour. Amir Khusrau tells that leather bags were distributed to the
soldiers to bring sand and stone-ballast and fill up the ravine that separated
the two hills. But the Rana kept himself fully informed about the situation and
their soldiers and the Mongols rebels collected together and threw fire on the
besiegers who were constructing Pashib
at the foot of the fort.[44]
Many men were killed on both sides.
The territories of Jhain were attacked and subdued as far as Dhar and had
established themselves there. At that time, news of Umar and Mangu revolt and
Haji Maula rebellion in Delhi reached Alauddin, but he had decided to conquer
Ranthambhor. According to Barani, the large army seizing the fort became tired
and sick of the siege but from the fear of being punished by Alauddin; no horse
and men could either return from the army to Delhi or deserted it or fly to
some other place.[45]
He was firm in his determination and reduced the fort in a month. As a siege
was long, famine prevailed to such an extent that a grain of rice was purchased
for two grains of gold[46].
Being in this condition, one night, Rana lit a fire and threw his women and
family into the flames and himself with his followers rushed on the Turkish
army and sacrificed their lives.[47]
But, Ferishta had given other details that with the help of Pashib, the troops eventually obtained the possession of the place. The Rana Hammir and his family were put to sword.[48] Many local Rajput literatures like Hammir Prabandh; Hammir Kavyas and Hammir Mahakavyas also supported the fact that act of Jauhar was performed and the Rana Hammir with his followers went to fight. The battle fought fiercely and Muhammad Shah and Kahbru fought side by side with their patron, at last, the Rana Hammir Deva fell, fighting in the battle field.[49] According to K. S. Lal, Ranthambhor was captured on 11 July, 1301 A.D. Its fall had been accelerated by the defection of Ranmal and Ratipal, who were ministers of Rana Hammir Deva. But after Alauddin had captured the fort he punished the faithless Rajputs, Ranmal and Ratipal, saying that they were not true to their patron and how they could be expected to be faithful to him.[50] Thus, the fort of Ranthambhor was captured. The temple of Bahir Deo and other temples were all razed to ground.[51] The fortress of Ranthambhor together with the territory of Jhain was entrusted to the Ulugh Khan[52] and the Sultan returned to Delhi.
Conquest of
Chittor under Sultan Alauddin Khilji
Alauddin success at Ranthambhor
encouraged him for further conquests in Rajputana. He himself proceeded to the
conquest of Chittor. On 1303 A.D., Alauddin marched with a large army to Chittor
from Delhi. Amir Khusrau, who accompanied the Sultan on this expedition, had
left a graphic description of the palace, its siege and its surrender.
According to Amir Khusrau, on arrival of Alauddin Khljis in Chittor, the Sultan
encamped his tents in the territory between the two rivers, Gambheri and
Berach, and ordered the army to encircle the whole town, the right and left
wings of the army encamped their tents on the two other sides of the fort.[53]
At the time of Alauddin’s conquest, Rana Ratan Singh, a son of Rana Samar Singh
was the ruler.
No trustworthy account, contemporary
or even later, of various stages operations, tough battles and stratagems that
would surely have occurred during these eight months, is available to us.
Barani in his Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi,
writes a line about the campaign of Chittor. He says that Alauddin went on a
campaign from Delhi to Chittor and laid the siege and captured it in a very
short time and from there once again returned to the city.[54]
Isami and Yahya also say something like Barani and did not give any details.
Before the final surrender of the
palace, the Rajput ladies lighted the fire of Jauhar in a subterranean cavern
which still exists and perished in to the devouring flames to save themselves
from enslavement and dishonour. Col. Tod
gives a picturesque description of Padmini, queen of Ratan Singh with other
Rajput ladies who threw themselves in to the fire of Jauhar. Tod writes “the fair Padmini closed the
throng which was augmented by whatever of female beauty or youth could be
tainted by Tatar lust. They were conveyed to the cavern and the opening closed
upon them, leaving them to find security from dishonour in the devouring
elements”.[55]
After the frightful rite of Jauhar had been performed, the Rajput
warriors fought the Turkish army. For long, all attempts of the army to climb
the fort by constructing a Pashib met
with a failure. But the Chittor capitulated after an open engagement in 1303 A.D.
and Amir Khusrau says, in a single
day, some thirty thousand persons were “cut down like dry grass”[56].
Alauddin bestowed the fort of Chittor upon his son, Khizr Khan and named the
place as ‘khizrabad’. He then,
returned to Delhi.[57] About
the fate of Rana Ratan Singh, Amir Khusrau says that after capitulation of
Chittor, the Rana sought refuge in Alauddin’s camp and his life was spared.[58]
But nothing is known about the Rana’s last days and his end.
There is a very interesting legend
about the invasion and capture of Chittor. Malik Muhammad Jaisi, a poet
of the 16th Century, wrote an epic called Padmavat in the year 1540 A.D in which he attributes the invasion
of Chittor to Sultan Alauddin’s desire to possess Padmini, the beautiful queen
of the Raja of Chittor. His story is full of romance, adventure and tragedy
which all are beautifully intermixed and very soon gripped the popular mind and
here, there and everywhere the story of Padmini was told and retold. As the Persian
historians – Khusrau, Barani, Isami and all near contemporary historians are
silent about it. K. S. Lal correctly says that settling aside the traditional narratives
of the story, the bare facts are that Sultan Alauddin invaded Chittor in 1303
A.D. and after a hard fight of about 8 months captured it. The Rajput warriors
died fighting and the women perished in the flames of Jauhar. Among those who
perished was perhaps a queen of Rana Ratan Singh whose name was Padmini. Except
these facts all else is a literary concoction and lacks historical support.[59]
No contemporary historians tells us clearly that how Chittor was governed during Alauddin Khilji’s reign. Khizr Khan was only a nominal governor and did not live at Chittor.[60] The Rajputs were constantly harassing the Turkish army garrisoned at Chittor and consequently, the Sultan ordered Khizr Khan to evacuate it.[61] Alauddin seems to had given up the idea of governing Chittor directly, though he kept a garrison there. Ferishta tells that the Sultan transferred Chittor from Khizr Khan to the son of the Raja’s sister, Maldeva, who had been in his service and showed every signs of loyalty. Maldeva remained all his life a tributary to the Sultan. He sent regular presents and joined the imperial standard in the field with, 5,000 horse and 10,000 foot.[62] But when Alauddin was on his death bed, the Raja of Chittor rebelled and regained its freedom. About 1321 A.D., after the death of Maldeva, Hammir, the Rana of Sisodia, established his rule over Mewar and his descendants continued to rule.
Conquest of Malwa
and Mandu under Sultan Alauddin Khilji
Turkish army had penetrated in to the
Malwa long before Alauddin invaded it in 1305 A.D. It was in the time of
Alauddin that it was subjected to a sustained campaign and the kingdom was
annexed to the Turkish Empire. According to Amir Khusrau, Raja Mahlak Deva of
Malwa and Kuka Pradhana possessed thirty or forty thousand cavalry and an
innumerable infantry.[63]
Ferishta also confirmed that the Raja possessed an army of 40,000 horse and
100,000 foot.[64]
Mahlak Deva‘s foster brother and commander-in-chief of the forces was Hara
Nand, was a brave warrior. Alauddin appointed a select body of 10,000 troops
under the Ainul Mulk Multani to march against Malwa.[65]
On their arrival, the Turkish army created tension in the region. In an
engagement Koka was killed in the battle field.[66]
His head was sent to Delhi where it was trampled by horses below the palace
gates.[67]
Koka’s death made the flight of Raja Mahlak Deva to Mandu.
Ainul Mulk Multani administered the Malwa and peace was soon established. After a short time, he marched to Mandu, which according to Amir Khusrau, the key to the conquest of Deccan. A contingent of Mahlak Deva, under the command of his son and encountered the Turkish army but was defeated and the prince was slain. The fort of Mandu was siege. Meanwhile a traitor from the town pointed out to Ainul Mulk a private passage and he entered the fort in the night. The Rana was killed and the fort was captured.[68] Soon after the fall of Mandu, the cities of Ujjain, Dhar-Nagiri and Chanderi were reduced and their Chiefs were forced to recognize the suzerainty of the Sultanate.[69] Whole of Malwa up to Mandu was entrusted to the Ainul Mulk Multani.[70]
Conquest of Siwana
under Sultan Alauddin Khilji
After the conquest of Malwa, Alauddin
himself went on his expedition against Siwana[71].
It was then in possession of a Paramara Rajput Chief Satal Deva. The Sultan
marched on July, 1303 A.D.[72]
towards Siwana. On arrival there, he began the investment of the fort. Alauddin
ordered the swordsmen of the right wing to attack the southern side of the
fort, while, of the left wing to attack it on the north. The Manjaniqs on the
west were entrusted to Malik Kamaluddin Gurg.[73]
The Turkish forces resorted to man stratagems, but all in vain. ‘When nothing
seemed to avail, says Prabandh, a
trick was restored to. A traitor named Bhaile was induced to indicate a passage
to the commander through which a manjaniq was carried and it discharged a cow’s
head in to the lake which supplied water to the besieged. Immediately the
garrison stopped drinking water and their fate was sealed’.[74]
The Turkish forces succeeded but after great difficulty. Satal Deva tried to
flee to Jalor but was pursued and killed.[75]
The administration of Siwana was entrusted to Kamaluddin Gurg[76]
and Alauddin returned to Delhi.
Conquest of Jalor
under Sultan Alauddin khliji
Ferishta mentions two expeditions to
Jalor, under Alauddin Khilji. In 1304 A.D., Ferishta writes that as the Turkish
generals Alaf Khan (Alp Khan) and Nusrat Khan were returning from the conquest
of Malwa, they arrived at Jalor and Nahar Deo (Kanhar Deva) taking lessons from
the fate of Koka, offered his submission to the Sultan without even a show off
of resistance.[77]
The other expedition, according to Ferishta, was in 1308 A.D. and was the
outcome of a very curious incident. One day while Kahar Deva was present in the
court, he heard Alauddin say that there was no one among the indigenous Raja
who could dare challenge the might of his arms. The remark pricked Kanhar’s
sense of pride and he spoke proudly. This enraged the Sultan and he ordered an
invasion of Jalor, to which Kanhar had already slipped to make preparations for
war.[78]
The reason given by Ferishta is not convincing. The real cause of the
expedition was in all certainly the determination of the Sultan to put an end
to the independence of Jalor as was done with the other states of Rajputana.
A Turkish army was sent to Jalor in
1311 A.D. the name of the commander of the expedition is not known. ‘According
to the gujarati epic Kanhad-de-Prabandh,
the contest continued for some years and the Turkish army met with a number of
reverses’.[79]
After these humiliating retreats, Sultan sent a strong force under the Malik
Kamaluddin Gurg. On reaching Jalor, Kamaluddin Gurg laid the siege. According
to Prabandh, one sejwal was tempted by royal gold to guide the Turkish army to
a secret entrance into the fort. Such meanness cost him his life at the hands
of his wife, but it facilitated the task of Kamaluddin. At last Gokalnath, his
son Vikram Deva and their followers were killed in a close combat and the
fortress was captured. Maldeva, a brother of Kanhar deva, survived the massacre
that followed the fall of Jalor.[80]
Later on, he was able to secure the goodwill of the Sultan, who as shown
before, appointed him to take charge of Chittor from Khizr Khan.
With the capitulation of Jalor,
almost all the leading states of Rajputana had been subdued one after the
other. Jaisalmer, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Siwana and Jalor, and the kingdoms
adjoining them- Bundi and Mandore had also been invaded. Jodhpur (Marwar) also
appears to be under the Sultanate. Thus, by the end of first decade of 14th
century, the whole of Rajputana was under the Delhi Sultans. But complete
subjugation of Rajputana was impossible, and Alauddin‘s success there was not a
permanent one. As, his successors were not able to hold their control on
Rajputs states.
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, the founder of Tughlaq dynasty, does not have any fresh contacts with the Rajputs. His successor Muhammad bin Tughlaq was engaged in consolidating the vast empire as his reign was full of rebellions occurring in Northern India by old nobles on economic grievances of policies of the Sultan. Later, Timur attack on 1398-99 A.D. led to the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate and foundation of many independent regional states and also foundation of new dynasty at Delhi i.e. Saiyyid dynasty.
Campaign against
Rajputs by Saiyyids
During Khizr Khan’s reign, the
Sultanate of Delhi shrank in dimensions and its rulers were satisfied in
formulating their policies in a very limited context. In relations to Rajputs,
soon after his accession to throne, in 1414-15 A.D., Khizr Khan sent an army to
Katehr (Rohilkhand) under Malik-us-Sharq Taj-ul-Mulk. Raja Har Singh fled in to
the mountains of Aonla[81]
but when pressed hard, he agreed to paid taxes, cash and tribute.[82]
Then, he marched towards the Khor and Kampil[83]
and proceeded to exact tribute from the Chiefs of Gwalior, Seori and Chandwar
and after recovering Jalesar[84]
from the control of the Rajput Chief of Chandwar and appointed his officer
there and returned back to Delhi.[85]
In 1416 A.D., Khizr Khan again sends Taj-ul-Mulk to Gwalior. He proceeded and
plundered it and exact money from Raja of Gwalior and other Chiefs. But in last
quarter of 1416 A.D. again, Khizr Khan himself marched to Gwalior and laid the
siege of fort. Though the fort proved impregnable, Khizr Khan succeeded in
realising some revenue from Gwalior and returned to Delhi.
According to Yahya-bin-Ahmed
Sirhindi, in 1418 A.D., the affairs in Katehr become serious as Raja Har Singh
of Katehr again rose in rebellion. Khizr Khan sent Malik Taj-ul-Mulk with a
numerous army to repress the rebellion. Raja Har Singh retired to the mountain
of Aonla but he was pursued and encamped near the jungle and Raja Har Singh
being enclosed therein, had to fight. The Turkish armies get victorious and all
the baggage; arms and horses of the Raja fell into their hands. Then, Raja Har
Singh fled towards the mountains of Kumaon. On the following day about 20,000
horsemen were sent in pursuit while Taj-ul-Mulk remained stationary with his
army and baggage. Turkish army pursued him into the mountains of Kumaon and
pressurised hard. On the fifth day, they retired, after having secured great
spoils but without any substantial achievement against the Raja and Taj-ul-Mulk
returned to Delhi.[86]
Since the situation in Katehr was far
from being under control, Khizr Khan decided to march in person against the
Raja Har Singh. Victory was almost in the hands, when he received the news of a
conspiracy by some Amirs, forced
Khizr Khan to raise the siege and return to Delhi. In 1420 A.D. again; Khizr
Khan sent Taj-ul-Mulk to collect tribute from Rajput Chief of Chandwar and
Katehr who had withheld the tribute. Since, in 1421 A.D., Khizr Khan died. He
was succeeded by Mubarak Shah on 1421 A.D. During his reign, there was a
rebellion arose by Mewatis in 1424 A.D. According to Yahya-bin-Ahmed Sirhindi,
he marched towards Mewat and ravaged the region. The Mewatis devastated their
own land and took refuge in Jahrah, which was their great stronghold. This
place was impregnable and grain and fodder were scarce, so the Sultan returned
to Delhi without achieving anything.[87]
In 1426 A.D., Mubarak Shah proceeded towards Gwalior. The Raja of Gwalior and
the Rajas of Thankir and Chandwar submitted without any resistance but paid the
revenue and tribute.[88]
Then, Sultan returned to Delhi. After him, during his successor Mahmud Shah’s
reign, disturbing reports of rebellions remained there from different parts of
Delhi Sultanate and Raja of Gwalior stopped paying tribute.
Thus, it may be assumed that Sultans of Saiyyid dynasty did not make any fresh contacts with Rajputs; even they did not try to recover the lost territories which were under the predecessor dynasties of Delhi Sultanate. But they tried to reunite the region from Multan in the west to Kannauj in the east and from the foot of the Himalayas in the north to the borders of Malwa, under the Delhi Sultanate.
Campaign against
Mewar under Bahlol Lodi
Saiyyid dynasty was succeeded by Lodi dynasty. Its founder Bahlol Lodi ascended the throne on 1451 A.D. Ahmed Yadgar in his Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afaghana, narrates an expedition conducted by Sultan Bahlol Lodi against the Rana (of Mewar) without naming the ruler or mentioning the date of the expedition. According to him, Sultan Bahlol Lodi marched against Rana and encamped at Ajmer, where he collected his force. Chattar Sal, son of the Rana’s sister with 10,000 cavalry was at Udaipur. Kutb Khan advanced towards that place and gave a fought in which Chattar Sal was slain in the field but on the condition of heavy losses of their soldiers. Five or Six elephants, forty horses and much plunder fell into the hands of the Sultan’s soldiers while those of Rana took to flight. Subsequently, the Rana accepted the suzerainty.[89] It seems that the Sultan success in Mewar was short lived and due to this, that this incident has not been mentioned by any other Persian historians.
Campaign against
Gwalior under Bahlol Lodi
In 1488 A.D., Sultan Bahlol Lodi marched towards Gwalior against Raja Man Singh Tonwar. Raja Man Singh paid homage and made a present of eighty lakhs of tankas.[90] From Gwalior, the Sultan marched towards Etawah and dispossessed the Chauhan Chief, Sakta Singh who had been the incharge of it since its capture.[91] While on his way back to Delhi, he fell ill and died on 1489 A.D. Sultan Bahlol Lodi was succeeded by Sikandar Lodi. He successfully suppressed the rebellion of zamindars and Bachgoti Rajputs[92] led by Juga in Jaunpur.
Campaign against
Dholpur under Sikandar Lodi.
Raja of Dholpur was suspected of having incited the rebels who had dislodged Imad-ul-Mulk, the governor of Bayana. This gave an excuse for invading Dholpur. He assigned Bayana to Khawas Khan and gave orders to Alam Khan, governor of Mewat and Khan-i-Khanan Lohani, governor of Rapri to attack Dholpur with the co-operation of Khawas Khan of Bayana.[93] Raja Manik Deva put up a determined defence and killed Khwaja Bubun, a veteran soldier.[94] On hearing this news, Sultan Sikandar Lodi moved from Sambhal towards Dholpur on 1501 A.D. On his approach, Manik Deva fled to Gwalior. Dholpur was occupied. Sikandar Lodi remained there for a month and marched towards Gwalior. He appointed Alam Lodi as incharge of the fort of Dholpur.[95]
Campaign against
Mandarael under Sikandar Lodi
In 1504 A.D., Sikandar Lodi marched against the fort of Mandareal[96]. He sieges and the fort was surrendered the fort. The Sultan demolished the temples and built mosques there. The fort was given to Mian Makhan and Mujahid Khan.[97]
Campaign against
Gwalior under Sikandar Lodi
In 1501 A.D., Raja Man Singh of Gwalior sent an ambassador Nihal to Sultan Sikandar Lodi with presents and assurances of friendship. But he failed and the relations between the Delhi and Gwalior became further strained.[98] Sultan Sikandar Lodi marched from Dholpur to Gwalior as the Raja Man Singh had given protection to certain rebels and also to Raja Manik Deva of Dholpur. For two months, the Sultan encamped on the bank of the Asi (Asan), a lake near Gwalior. Ultimately, the Raja sued for peace and expelled Said Khan, Babu Khan and Raja Ganesh (the Chauhan Chief of Patiali) and sent his son, Bikramajit as a hostage to the Sultan. The Sultan was pleased, he honoured the prince and later, gave back Dholpur to Raja Manik Deva and returned back to Delhi.[99] In 1506 A.D., Sultan again marched against Gwalior. The reason appears to be the trouble created by the Gwalior Raja who supported the cause of Raja Manik Deva of Dholpur following his expulsion a second time by Sultan Sikandar Lodi. On his way, he stayed for a month in Dholpur and left princes Ibrahim Khan and Jalal Khan there, marched towards Gwalior. He pursued the Rajputs to the hills and jungles and slaughtered and captured them. When the Afghans army reached Chatawar in Gwalior state, the army was sudden attacked from an ambush and only saved by the bravery of Awadh Khan and Ahmed Khan. A large number of Rajputs were killed. The Sultan did not proceed further and returned back to capital via Dholpur.[100]
Campaign against
Untgarh under Sultan Sikandar Lodi
In 1506 A.D., Sultan Sikandar Lodi
sent Imad Khan Farmali and Mujahid Khan with a strong army for the conquest of
fort of Untgarh[101]
which regarded as the key to Gwalior. Later on, Sultan personally joined them
and attacked the fort from all sides. The garrison put up a heroic defence and
when a breach was made in the wall of the fort, they desperately fought hand to
hand and their resistance continue even after the fort had been occupied.[102]
Bhikun Khan, the son of Mujahid Khan was left incharge of the fort; but when
Sultan came to know that Mujahid Khan had taken a bribe from the Raja of
Untgarh in order to divert the Sultan from attacking that place. Thus, Sultan
Sikandar Lodi ordered the imprisoned of Mujahid Khan at Dholpur and himself
returned to Agra.[103]
After Sultan Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi was raised to the throne on 1517 A.D. During his reign, many rebellions arose in different parts of Delhi Sultanate. There is a reference of rebellion of the ManChand, the Rajput zamindar of Jartauli in the Kol (Aligarh) pargana who rose in rebellion and killed Umar Khan Sherwani, the governor of Kol. Malik Qasim the governor of Sambhal was ordered by the Sultan to march against him and suppressed the rebellion.[104]
Campaign of
Gwalior under Ibrahim Lodi
Sultan Ibrahim Lodi now made up his
mind for the conquest of Gwalior. The reason behind the conquest was partly
military glory because Bahlol Lodi & Sikandar Lodi who wanted to subjugate
Gwalior & had failed and particularly because its Raja had given shelter to
fugitive prince Jalal khan. Ibrahim Lodi sent an army of consisting of 30,000
cavalry & 350 elephants under Azam Humayun khan Sherwani.[105]
The army of the Sultan besieged the fort of Gwalior & prince Jalaluddin
accordingly, left that place and retired to Malwa.
The Sultan sent reinforcements under Bhikan Khan Lodi, Jalal khan Lodi, Sulaiman Farmali, Bahadur Khan Sherwani, Khizr Khan Lodi, Khizr Khan Nuhani & Khan Jahan Lodi for the assistance of Azam Humayun Sherwani and to serve under his command. At this time, Raja Man Singh of Gwalior was died. He was succeeded by his son, Bikramajit who strengthened the fort. After some time, Sultan personally conducts the siege of the fort. They decided to launch an attack on Badalgarh (outer Gwalior fort). The besieging army had caused a breach in the walls of the fort by gun powder. Badalgarh was thus conquered. Sultan Ibrahim Lodi found copper bull[106] out of whose mouth a voice issued, which was worshiped there. According to the orders of the Sultan, it was conveyed to Delhi and setup in the Baghdad gate where it remained till the year 1585 A.D., when Akbar who caused it to melted down for the purpose of making cannon. Sultan returned after the conquest of Badalgarh in 1518 A.D. Later again, Azam Humayun was send to reduced the fort of Gwalior. He besieged the fort and when the Rajputs were compelled to surrender, Azam Humayun was called by Sultan to court. Then he raised the siege and prepares to depart.[107]
Campaign against
Mewar under Sultan Ibrahim Lodi
In 1519 A.D., an army was prepared
for the purpose of attacking Rana Sanga of Mewar. Mian Husain Khan Zarbakhsh,
Mian Khan Khanan Farmuli and Mian Maruf, were send under the command of Mian
Makhan to operate against Rana Sanga.[108]
According to Ahmad Yadgar, when the Afghans forces was face to face with Rana
army, the Sultan wrote and ordered Mian Makhan to arrest Mian Husain Khan and
Mian Maruf Khan and send them as prisoners to him. Seeing no escape, Husain
Khan sends a messenger to Rana Sanga, who firstly suspected him of treacherous
plan. But after entering into a conversation, Mian Husain Khan went to the Rana
with a thousand horsemen and the Rana send his own nephew to meet him and the
deserter join the Rana.
On account of the departure of Mian Husain Khan, Mian
Makhan had with him 30,000 horsemen and 300 gigantic elephants, was much
discouraged. Next day, both the armies came face to face, the Rana together
with Mian Husain Khan advanced against him with an innumerable army. Mian
Makhan send a message to Mian Maruf requesting him not to follow the
treacherous example of Mian Husain Khan. While this was going on, information
was brought of the arrival of the Rana’s army, Mian Makhan arranged his army
and placed Said Khan Furat and Haji Khan with 7000 horsemen on the right and
Daulat Khan, Allah-dad Khan and Yusuf Khan on the left and Mian Makhan himself
commanded the advanced. Battle was fought at khatoli[109]
and Rana army become victorious and Mian Makhan had to return to the placed
from which he had set forth.
Again conversations started between Mian Husain, Mian
Maruf and Mian Makhan. Accordingly Mian Maruf accompanied by 6000 horsemen left
his camp and stayed at the distance of two kos
from Mian Husain, who on receiving information of his arrival came and joined
him. The army of the Rana was celebrating of its successes and at the same
time, they attacked and slaughtered. The Rana was wounded but contrived to
escape with some of his men - the rest were put to the sword. Then, Mian
Bayazid wrote to the Sultan announcing the victory which Mian Husain Khan and
Mian Maruf had gained, after which Husain Khan sent fifteen of the elephants
and 300 of the horses of the Rana to Delhi. The Sultan was much pleased at this
success. But the success of the Afghans army against Rana Sanga was temporary.
Very soon after Rana Sanga attacked and conquered Chanderi and bestowed
Chanderi to Medini Rai.[110]
However, when Delhi Sultanate was
established, the Sultans were constantly in political interaction with the
Rajputs who were mainly ruling in India and always confronted the Sultans in
the execution of their expansionist policy. Their interests were always against
each other, both wants to hold power in India with maximum economic resources
and military power. This was the reason that they were in constant wars
struggling in their offensive and defensive role. There was upheaval in their
relations as some Rajputs never accepted their defeat and vassalage of Delhi
Sultans, while other accepted vassalage and were in good terms. As there is a
reference that Sultan Bahlol Lodi enjoyed the confidence of a very large number
of Rajputs and entrusted responsible posts to them. Rai Karan, Rai Pratap, Rai
Bhir Singh, Rai Tilokchand and Rai Dhandhu were some of his trusted Chiefs. But
at the same time, there is also a reference in Babur-nama that Rana Sanga of Mewar had also invited Babur to attack
India[111],
which resulted in the downfall of the Delhi Sultanate and foundation of Mughal
Empire in India. Thus, political relations between the Delhi Sultans and the
Rajputs were strained and were not of hatedness but of toleration; which helps
Mughal emperor in the foundation of their empire.
[1]
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri;
Eng. Tr. By Raverty – I ; p – 608.
[2]
Taj-ul-Massir;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
II; p -94.
[3]
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri;
Eng. Tr. By Raverty – I; p -610-611.
[4]
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri;
Eng. Tr. By Raverty – I; p – 620.
[5] Identical with Chahara Deva of Jajapella
dynasty who later supplanted the pariharas in narwar – A. B. M. Habibullah; Foundation
of Muslim rule in India; Allahabad, 1976, p – 85.
[6] Tabaqat-i-Nasiri; Eng. Tr. by Raverty
–I; p – 622
[7]
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri;
Eng. Tr. By Raverty – I; p – 642.
[8]
Tabaqat-i-Nasiri;
Eng. Tr. By Raverty – I; p – 679-680.
[9]
Ibid; p – 681-683.
[10]
Ibid; p- 684-685.
[11]
Ibid; p -690-691.
[12]
Ibid; p – 697-698.
[13]
Miftah-ul-futuh;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India - III; London; 1871, P- 540; wrongly
given lohravat as sohrait. Lohravat is a
village then lying to the west of Siri, is not traceable now. It is here that Nasir-ud-din Khusrau lost the
throne to Ghazi Tughlaq in 1320 A.D.
[14]
It lay south-west of Delhi on the road
to the Deccan.
[15]
Miftah-ul-futuh;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III : p- 540.
[16]
Ibid; P – 541.
[17]
Miftah-ul-futuh;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India
- III; p – 541-542.
[18]
Ibid; p – 542.
[19]
Terms for the appliances of war.
[20]
Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; London, 1871, P – 146-147.
[21]
Mandore lies 4 miles north of jodhpur.
[22] Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi; Elliot & Dowson’s
History of India - III; p – 148.
[23]
Bhilsa or vidishi lies on the river
Betwa.
[24]
Miftah-ul-futuh;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 543.
[25]
Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 148.
[26]
Ibid; p – 150.
[27]
Wassaf’s Tazjiyat-ul- amsar; Elliot & Dowson’s History of India - III; p – 31.
[28]
K. S. lal; History of Khiljis; New Delhi, 1980, p – 68-69.
[29]
Tarikh-i-ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India
- III; p – 163.
[30]
Khazain-ul-futuh;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 74.
[31]
Cited from K. S. Lal; History of Khaljis; p – 70.
[32]
Tarikh-i-Ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India
- III; p -163.
[33]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By Briggs- I; p -328.
[34]
Tarikh-i-ferozshai;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p - 164
[35]
K. S. Lal; History of khaljis; p – 73.
[36]
Cited from K. S. Lal.; History of Khijlis; p – 82-83.
[37] Ranthambhor now lies in the south-eastern
corner of Rajasthan.
[38]
Tarikh-i-ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 172.
[39]
Gargach is stone throwing machines used
during medieval period.
[40]
Pashib was a raised platform constructed
by sand and other materials to escalade the walls of the fort.
[41]
Tarikh-i-ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 172.
[42]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By briggs – I; p – 337.
[43]
It is a plain about 12 miles east of
delhi and south of Khilughari.
[44]
Khazain-ul-futuh;
Eng. tr. By M. Habib; Politics and Society during the early
medieval India; II; p- 195.
[45]
Ibid; foot note on p -197.
[46]
Tarikh-i-Alai;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p- 75.
[47]
Ibid, p – 75.
[48]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By briggs; I; p – 343.
[49]
Cited from K. S. Lal; history of khiljis; p – 94.
[50]
Ibid, ; p – 95.
[51] Tarikh-i-Alai; Elliot & Dowson’s History of India - III; p – 76.
[52]
Amir Khusrau’s Ashika; Elliot & Dowson’s History
of India – III; p – 549.
[53]
Khazain-ul-futuh;
Eng. tr. By M. Habib; p – 188.
[54]
Tarikh-i-ferozshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 189.
[55]
William Crooke; Tod; annals and antiquities of Rajasthan –I; 1920, p – 311.
[56]
Khazain-ul-futuh;
tr. By M.Habib; p - 189
[57]
Tarikh-i-Alai;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 77.
[58]
Khazain-ul-futuh;
tr. By M.Habib; p - 189
[59]
K. S. lal; history of khiljis; p – 110.
[60]
Comprehensive
history of india; p – 371.
[61]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By briggs; p – 363.
[62] Ibid; p – 363.
[63]
Khaizain-ul-futuh;
tr. By M.Habib; p – 185.
[64]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By briggs; p – 361.
[65]
Ibid; p – 361.
[66]
Khaizain-ul-futuh;
tr. By M.Habib; p – 185.
[67]
Tarikh-i-Alai;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 76.
[68] Khaizain-ul-futuh; M. Habib; p –
187.
[69]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
tr. By. Briggs; p – 361.
[70]
Khaizain-ul-futuh;
tr. By M.Habib; p – 186; 187-188
[71]
Siwana is situated 50 miles south-west
of jodhpur.
[72]
Tarikh-i-alai;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 78.
[73]
Khaizain-ul-futuh;
tr. By M.Habib; p – 192.
[74]
Cited from K.S.Lal; history of khaljis; p – 115.
[75]
Tarikh-i-alai;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India -
III; p – 78.
[76]
Ibid; p - 78
[77]
Tarikh-i-ferishta;
tr. By Briggs; p – 362.
[78]
Ibid; p – 370-371.
[79]
Cited from K.S.Lal; history of the khaljis; p – 118.
[80] Ibid; p – 118.
[81]
It is a town in bareilly district.
[82]
Yahya bin ahmed Sirhindi’s Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi; Elliot & Dowson’s
History of India- IV; p – 47.
[83]
A village 28 miles north-west of
fatehgarh in Farrukhabad district.
[84] In Etawah district, 38 miles east of Mathura.
[85]
Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India-
IV; p – 47-48.
[86]
Yahya-bin-Ahmed Sirhindi’s tarikh-i-mubarakshahi; Elliot & Dowson
’s History of India-IV; p – 49- 50.
[87] Ibid.; p – 61.
[88]
Ibid.; p -62.
[89]
Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afaghana;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India –
V; London, 1873, p – 4-5.
[90]
Abdul Halim’s History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra; Delhi, 1974, p – 49.
[91]
Comprehensive
history of india – V; p -684.
[92]
Bachgoti Rajputs are a tribe of mainpuri
Chauhans, living on the borders of Jaunpur and Gorakhpur.
[93]
Abdul Halim; history of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and agra; p – 79-80.
[94]
Tarikh-i-Ferishta;
eng. Tr. By Briggs; p – 578.
[95] Abdul Halim; History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra; p – 80-81.
[96]
Mandareal corresponds to Mandril, a town
in the Karauli state, 62 miles west from Gwalior.
[97]
Abdul Halim; History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra; p – 82.
[98]
Tarikh-i-Ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By Briggs; p – 577.
[99]
Abdul Halim; History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra; p- 81-82.
[100]
Ibid; p – 85-86.
[101]
Untgarh is in Karauli .
[102]
Abdul Halim; History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra; p – 86-87.
[103]
Tarikh-i-Ferishta;
Eng. Tr. By Briggs; p – 580.
[104]
Abdul Halim; History of Lodi Sultans of Delhi and Agra; p – 134-140.
[105]
Ibid; p – 144.
[106]
Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afaghana;
Elliot & Downson’s history of India-
V; p – 13.
[107]
Tarikh-i-Salatin-i-Afaghana;
Elliot & Dowson’s History of India-
V; p – 20-21.
[108] Ibid; p – 16.
[109]
Khatoli corresponds to ghatoli; is in
Ranthambhor.
[110]
Tarikh-i-salatin-i-Afaghana;
Elliot & Dowson ’s History of India-
V; p – 17-20.
[111]
Babur-nama;
Eng. Tr. By A. S. Beveridge; New Delhi; 2000; p – 529.
Post a Comment