Rukhsana Iftikhar
University of the Punjab, Lahore
South Asian Studies
A Research Journal of South Asian Studies
Vol. 25, No. 2, July-December 2010, pp. 323-339
Cultural Contribution of Mughal Ladies
ABSTRACT
Hindustan was considered one of the regions which attained political and cultural strength during 16th and 17th centuries. Mughal dynasty had a lash green Central Asian cultural background enhanced the beauty of various cultural areans just like architecture, painting, dance and music etc. even Mughal women were the patrons of various cultural activites. This notion is very controversial that Mughal women who were very seculded how they could be the active participants of cultural ativities? First, Mughal ladies like Noor Jahan Jahanara, Zab-un-Nisa were educated women of age having their own libraries. Second, they consciously contributed in cultural life of that period. This paper identifies various cultural fields which were originated, financed and Iooked after by the Mughal women.
KEY WORDS: Culture, Mughals, Sub-Continent,
Ladies
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Introduction
The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were witnessed
by a flurry of cultural activities in
India as the land had not seen in over a thousand years. The clan of the fabulously talented Mughal dynasty catalyzed
much of this. There were also
substantial achievements in many fields outside royal patronage. Though
there were two different religious
identities i.e. Hindus and Muslims, but both these communities influenced each other and there
was great cultural interaction between
them. But the royal and elite cultural effervescence was primarily a royal spectacle (Early, 1997: 854).
The Mughals came from a lush cultural background (Central Asia) and they valued intellectual, literary and artistic achievements. Their liberal resources helped them to patronise scholars, distribute charity, construct edifices buildings and lay out gardens. Mughal emperors themselves were multi-talented people. They have major cultural accomplishments to their credit. They also gave enough liberty to their ladies in spite of Purdah or seclusion to patronise the cultural activities. So, Mughal ladies utilized their time and resources on the literary pursuits of that age. Royal ladies like Silma Sultan Begum, Gulbadan Begum, Nur Jahan, Jahanara and Zeb un Nisa had their own libraries(Misra, 1967: 84-85). Some ladies devoted themselves to religious and literary activities, others passed their time in music, dancing and fine arts which were considered the best sources of their entertainment. Many of them went on excursions and pleasure trips. Most of the ladies were interested in dresses, toilet and ornaments. But all their cultural activities were restricted behind the purdah.
Literary Accomplishments
The ladies of Mughal royality were quite educated.
They occupied themselves in reading,
writing and composing verses. Mughal Emperor always hired some experienced old person especially for the
education of their women; she was
entitled Atun Mama (Lady Teacher) (Gulbadan: 208).
During Akbar’s time the regular training was given to
the ladies of royal household. Akbar set
apart certain chambers as a school for girls in his palace at Fatehpur Sikri(Law, 1916: 202).
The Mughal emperors also used to employ educated
ladies usually Persian to teach their
daughters(Sarkar, 1913: 301).
Shahjahan
appointed Sati un Nisa Begum (Nazir (Accountant) of Mumtaz Mahall) for the literary training of Jahanara
Begum. Jahanara Begum picked the
knowledge of Persian and Arabic from Sati un Nisa (Tamuri: 100).
Aurangzeb educated his daughters not only in religious
sphere but also they had a comprehensive
knowledge of linguistics. He appointed Hafiza Mariyum and Mulla said Ashraf Mazindarani as her teacher,
a highly educated lady and a great
Persian poet respectively (Lal, 1988: 110).
The curriculum for the education of ladies included
study of Persian, Arabic, Theology,
History etc. (Manucci, 1906: 331). Some ladies learnt Quran by heart; other took interest in reading the books like
Gulistan and Bostan written by Sheikh
Sadi Shirazi(Op.cit, 1919: 201).
Educational Institutions
Mughal women also promoted the cause of learning by
establishing educational institutions.
They had founded Madrasas (Schools) and gave stipends to the needy and deserving persons for promoting learning.
Bega Begum, wife of Humayun, founded a
college near the tombs of her husband (Benerjee, 1938: 317). Maham Anga (foster mother of Akbar) established a
madarasa at Delhi attached to a mosque
Khir ul Munazil (Op.cit, 1916: 202). Jahanara Begum founded a madarsa attached to Jamia Masjid Agra (Ibid:
203).
The patronage given by these ladies to spread the
education was not confined to the
capital alone. In some provinces of the empire, some ladies took keen interest
in the promotion of education. Bibi Razi, the wife of Muhmud Shah of Jaunpur, built a college and allotted
stipends for students and teachers (Ibid: 101).
So the Mughal ladies were educated and they had done a lot for promotion
of learning especially in that era in
which the concept of learning was quite ignored
regarding women.
Paintings
During Mughal rule in India, there were a number of
schools of painting and known as
artistic families. As far as matter of female painter is concerned there
is only one available reference of
female painter named Nadira Bano, the daughter of a pupil of Aqa Riza who made copies of
Flemish etchings (Schimmel: 273). The
royal ladies were very much interested in paintings but no reference is
available which could show them
achieving any learning in this art. These ladies patronised those painters who were appointed by the
Mughal emperor for their esthestic taste.
Nur Jahan shared actively her husband (Jahangir’s) interest in painting
(Brown, 1981: 157). Fancy portraits
professing to be Nur Jahan’s shooting at birds and animals are seen in some collections, but
none of them bears any real evidence of
being authentic representation of the scenes the painters of that age
intend to depict(Ibid: 158).
According to Manucci “I do not being forward any
portraits of queens or princesses, for
it is impossible to see them. Thanks to their, being always concealed. If any one has produced such
portraits, these should not be accepted,
being only likeness of concubines and dancing girls, which they have
been drawn according to the artist
fancy” (Op.cit, 1901: 331). Manucci has given the portraits of ‘Dakin women’ (Ibid: 332) and ‘women of
Hindustan’ (Ibid: 362) in his
account.
But scholars like K. S Lal convincingly stated that
Nur Jahan herself painted some amount of
excellence (Op.cit, 1988: 77). Women were being depicted in the miniatures produced in Jahangir’s period. It
is likely that Nur Jahan could ask the
painters in Jahangir’s studios to paint any image that appealed to her,
it was due, perhaps to the influence of
Nur Jahan, the favourite queen of Jahangir, that women became more popular as a subject matter of
painting (Pratapaditya, 1983: 44).
Nur Jahan exercised influence upon the paintings under
Jahangir. She was no doubt the
appreciative beneficiary of many of the single images and illustrated manuscripts made in the imperial studios. A copy
of Hafiz’s Diwan, for example, copied by
Khwaja Abdus Samad Shirinqalam during Akbar’s reign, illustrated with miniatures under Jahangir, bore the seal
of Nur Jahan, indicating that it was
presented to her on some occasion by her husband (Das, 1986: 83).
Jahangir’s pictorial hoard some time helped by his royal consort because she was the collector and curator of some of Jahangir’s paintings. In early years of Jahangir’s reign, he liked the religious paintings like the image of Madonna and Jesus Christ suggested by his favourite queen (Findly, 2005: 224). The paintings of female images, whether of urban matrons, Roman goddesses or feasting courtesans must certainly have been drawn at Nur Jahan’s instance (Ibid: 225). Annemarie Schimmel points out ‘there is a small picture of Dara Shikoh dressed for bed. He and his beloved wife Nadira Begum are deeply gazing into each other’s eyes. Their servants clothing is shimmering against the dark background and the lamps are casting a golden background light (Schimmel: 276). Keeping in view the interests of Nadira Bano, Dara Shukoh presented her an album that proved her a lover of paintings. Rajput school of painting also bears the feminine images. Religious love epics of Hindu mythology depicted illustrations and miniatures of Mughal period. The love story of Ram and Sita, Radha and Krishna reflected through Rajput paintings of Akbar reign (Wellsz, 1952: 35).
Music
Music was considered the favourite activity of the
ladies of Mughal harem. They always took
keen interest in music. Ratnavali, the wife of Puran Mahal (of Raisin) sang Hindi songs in her sweet and melodious
voice. Queen Mrignayni (Man Singh’s
wife) was expert in music (Serwani, 1972: 402). Mira Bai was a well known singer(Op.cit, 1938: 323) of that
period.
The daughter of Nayak Bikhshi (court singer of Akbar)
was an expert in music. Even Mian Tan
San spent his time in Deccan for training under this eminent singer of that age (Aslam, 1992:
92).
There are a number of Mughal / miniatures depicting
the dancing performance and singing of
women. Paintings of ladies holding various musical instruments like Drum, Tambourine, Duff, Sittar (Op.cit,
1981) depicted the popularity of music
in this period. Abdul Fazal refers to a particular class of female singers,
the women while they sing and play upon
thirteen pairs of talas at once. They are
mostly from Gujrat and Malwa. Tera-Tal is still very popular in
Rajisthan. “Dhadi women” sang on a
particular instrument named Dahada belonged to the Punjab. They could play Daff, Dafzan and Tambourine.
(See Fig. 6.1) “Kanjri”, a group
consisted of male and female experts in dancing and singing. Emperor
Akbar did not like the name of this
group and called them by the name of Kanchains (Group of Women Dancers) (Abul-Fazal, 1964:
226).
Banarsi Prasad Saksena writes, “that emperor Shahjahan
had given sometimes to Music in hectic
routine of his administrative life. He specially employed concubines for singing and dancing in the
night parties (Seksena: 337).
 |
Figure 6.1: Royal Musicians Performance at a Marriage Akbarnama, 1590 or earlier. Courtesy of the Board of Trustees of the Victoria and Albert Museum, IS.2-1896 f.8/117. The heralding ensemble (naubat or naqqara khana) on the right annunces the presence of the Emperor. Three Indian women in the centre sing and play the drum (dhol) and cymbals (tala), while central Asian female musicians accompany dancers on tambourine (da’ira). |
Hira Bai was considered one of the famous musicians of Shahjahan’s period. Aurangzeb was deeply involved in the love of Hira Bai Zainabadi. Unfortunately she died in youth (Aslam: 145) and Aurangzeb had faced this emotional set back. In the early years of Aurangzeb reign Saraus Bai was the popular singer. She was the darling of prince Murad/ (Aurangzeb’s brother). She spent a very hard time with him when Aurangzeb confined Murad in the fort of Gawaliyar (Ibid).
Noor Bai, another female singer of Aurangzeb’s period
sang the Rubai of Umer Khayam very
melodiously and sweetly (Ibid: 153).
Dance
The art of dancing was not the activity of upper class
women. They were just the entertainers.
It seems to have been confined to a class of professionals alone. Dance was just performed in the restricted
assemblies and parties of Mughals.
Marriages, birthdays and different ceremonies of royalty and nobility
were the occasions of dance performance
(See Fig. 6.2 – 6.3) (Op.cit, 1988: 168). Royal
family and nobles did not like that their females trained in this art
because they could get the dancers on a
nominal prices.
Many paintings depicted the dance performances of
professional ladies. They were
performing in a stylish movement called “Chacha” or “sea saw”. In the course of the dance they hold hands and
circle eight times. It was originally a
Hindu dance but later on it was taken over by the Mughals(Op.cit,
1981).
There was a specific class of women who took dance as
a profession. Akbar used to call them
“Kanchains”. Most of these Kanchains were handsome and well dressed and sang to perfection, their limbs
being extremely supple. They danced with
wonderful agility and were always correct as regards to time (Bernier,
1934: 274-76).
Abul Fazal refers to a particular class of female
dancer, the women while they sing play
upon thirteen pairs of Talas at once, two (cymbals or sanj tied) on each wrist, two on each shoulders one on the
breast and two on the fingers of each
hand. They are mostly from Gujrat and Malwa (Op.cit, 1964: 225-227).
Emperor Aurangzeb prohibited dancing and singing at
court, yet he allowed it in his palace
for the entertainment of the queens and his daughters (Op.cit, 1906: 335).
Peter Mundy visited India in 1628, he writes, “there
are also dancing wenches of whom they
are diverse sorts as Lulleness (lalni)Harcances (Harakin), Kanchanees (Kanchain) and Doomeness (Domnis)
being of several castes and used
different manners of music. Most commonly they are hired at solemn feasts where they play, sing, and dance and there is
rarely any meeting of friends without
them………. (Mundy, 1919: 216). Bernier refers to them as dancing girls
……….. (Op.cit, 1934: 273).
Abul Fazal mentioned a special performance of dance
named “Akhara” (Style of Dance) which
entertained the nobility and in which domestic servants are taught to sing and play ……... four pretty women lead
off a dance and some graceful movements
are executed. Four others are employed to sing while four more accompany them with Cymbal* (instrument), two
other play the Pakhawaj. Two the upang*
and while the Deccan Rubab*, the vina* and Yantra* each taken by one place. The lighting arrangements enhance
the beauty of the occasion. Two women
hold lamps near the circle of performers……… (Op.cit, 1964: 346). This group of performers was called Natwa. They
specially trained their young girls in
singing, dancing and playing instruments. Then these Natwas presented
these girls before some noble and
achieved their aims……(Ibid: 226).
 |
| Figure 6.2: Dance parties of Mughal Emperor Zanit Zaid, The Magnificent Mughals. |
 |
Fig. 6.3: The Wedding of Shah Jahan on His 42nd Lunar Brithday.Painted by Bhola. Padshah Nama, ca. 1635. the Royal Collection © 2000 Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II. Holmes Binding 149, p. 140, f. 70b. The naubat/naqqara khana musicians paly from the balcony, while below dancers are accompanied by singing, dhrupad rabab, rudra vina, dhol, tambur, castanet and possibly other instruments. |
The dancing and singing women received on the occasions handsome presents from princesses and other freat ladies ….. when the ladies attend they never do it with empty hands, but always carry costly presents to be offered” And when they leave, thir hands are filled with Kichari”(A special dish made of rice and vegetables) not the rice and vegetable preparation, but a mixture of gold and silver coins, with all kinds of precious stones and pearls, large and small” (Op.cit, 1901: 346).
According to Ovington, here the dancing wenches or
Quenchenies, entertain you. If you
please with the sprightly motions, and most charming aspects, with much amorous glances and to taking irritable
a move, that as they cannot but gain an
admiration from all, so they frequently captivate a zealous rich spectator
and make their fortunes with the booty
of the enchanted admirer” (Ovington, 1696:
257).
Architecture
The first lady who seems to pay higher attention
towards construction was Haji Begum (the
wife of Humayun). She built the tomb of her husband Humayun with great care. She also built an Arab Sarai for
the accommodation of Arab travelers and
merchants(Op.cit, 1938: 317). A royal house and garden was built on the
road from Agra to Bayana under the
supervision of Haji Begum(Ibid). Thevenot writes, “Upon the road from Agra to Bayana there is a
royal house built by the queen mother
(step) of Eebar (Akbar) with gardens kept in very good order” (Thevenot and Carri, 1696: 257).
Near the fort of Lahore Begum Shahi mosque was
constructed by Mariyam Zamani
(Jahangir’s mother Manmati, daughter of Raja Bihari Mal) (Zaid, 2002: 200).
A garden and a well was also built by the order of
Maryam Zamani Begum in the pargana of
Jusat on the road, Jahangir writes, “Certainly the baoli (step well) was a grand building and had been built
exceedingly well. I ascertained from the
officials that the sums of Rs.20,000 had been expended on this well
(Jahangir, 1925: 64).
Khusrau Bagh in Allahabad was built by one of the
daughters of Jahangir in 1620 A.D
(Op.cit, 2002: 200).
Emperor Jahangir also mentions other gardens in his
memories, first of all “I walked around
the Shaharara ----------- then in the garden that Bika Begum, grandmother of my father had made. ---------
then a ground, Maryum Makani, my own
grand mother had prepared. The Shaharara garden was made by Shaharara Banu Begum (daughter of Mirza Abu Said) who
was aunt of the Late king Babur” (Jahangir, 1925).
The Mughals were fond of gardens and Nur Jahan was no exception. But she is credited with designing and inspiring construction of many buildings. She built a garden called Shah Dara near Lahore (Op.cit, 1988: 75). In 1620 A.D, the Vakils (Managers/ Representatives) of Nur Jahan completed a large Sarai in Jalandhar (district Punjab). It was totally financed by Nur Jahan popularly known as “Serai Noor Mahal”. According to Shuja-ud- din Serai Noor Mahal is local idom “meant some specious and important edifice” (Shuja-ud-din: 102).
After its completion Nur Jahan gave a grand
feast(Op.cit. 1925: 106-107). Peter
Mundy stopped at this Sarai on 6th August 1632 A.D, and finding it still in use. He writes, “This sarai is very fair
one, built by the old Queen Noor Mohol - ---- for the accommodation of
travelers” (Op.cit, 1919: 95). Nur Jahan was still alive when Mundy visited the Agra Sarai (also
known as Nur Mahal Sarai) but she has
been fully retired from royal activities.
Her officers also built a Sarai at Sikanderabad
(Pelsaest, 1925: 4). Bernier describes,
“The garden is very handsome, laid out in regular walks and full of fruit trees, apple, pears, plum, apricot and
cherry. The waterfall produced the finest
effect imaginable especially at night……. at vernag (powerful snake)
Jahangir built many gardens between 1612
– 1619. It is said that they “were designed and
laid out by his wife Nur Mahal” (Op.cit, 1934: 413).
Nur Manzil garden and Nur Afshan gardens too were
named after her with her design (Op.cit,
1919: 197).
Pelsaert a Dutch merchant noted “Many garden on the
eastern bank of Jamuna with handsome
walls and gateways; belonged to the King named charbagh (T. Siar baegh) the other Moti Mohal” (Op.cit, 1925:
5).
Peter Mundy, English traveler noted many gardens
around the city of Agra. Among these
gardens three were great” Darree ca bagh” of King Ecbar’s and Motee Bagh on the sides of the River Jammna
the latter was built by Noor Mohol (Op.cit, 1919: 214). Temple who edited the
travels of Peter Mundy explained a fair
identification as Moti Bagh was situated on eastern bank of Jumma but it
does not solve the question of Zohara
bagh which is on the eastern banks, then one may ask where is the layout of Moti Bagh.
According to Temple, Mundy made a mistake
at some point in his geography (Op.cit, 2005: 250).
Noor Jahan financed to build a mosque at Srinagar
(Kashmir) which is called Nau Masjid,
Shahi Masjid or Pathar Masjid (Shuja-ud-Din: 44). The tomb of Itmaid ud Daula (her father) at
Agra, Jahangir (her husband) at Lahore
and herself at Lahore were built under her supervision. It bears in every part of it the imprint of the refined
feminism of this remarkable queen ------
these buildings conveyed the impression of the rich articles of
jewellry magnified into Mughal
architecture (Op.cit, 1988: 75-76).
Besides Nur Jahan, another lady Aqa Aqayan, who served
Emperor Jahangir for 33 years, built a
garden, a serai and a tomb in Delhi(Jahangir, 1925). Purhunar Bano Begum, elder daughter of
Shahjahan buried in a mausoleum
constructed in Delhi under her own supervision (Op.cit, 2002: 203). Taj Mahal a building was constructed by
emperor Shahjahan for his beloved wife
Arjumand Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mahal). This Mughal building has the influence of different buildings constructed
earlier by the Mughal queens. According
to Parcy Brown, Taj Mahal is influenced by the tomb of Humayun (Brown: 165)
supervised by his wife Haji Begum.
A building which may be said to mark the transition
between the red sandstone cum marble
constructions of Akbar and Jahangir, and the pure marble creations of Shah Jahan, is that gem of a
tomb, that of I’timadu’d-Daulah at Agra
which may be said to be a forerunner of the Taj in certain respects,
built by It’imadu’d-Daulah’s daughter,
the empress Nur Jahan, in 1627-28 A.D (Sherwani, 1968: 32).
Nur Jahan also designed and supervised a building of
his husband’s tomb at Shahdara, Lahore.
Taj Mahal has certain reflects of this building named Jahangir’s tomb. These three buildings were either
designed or supervised by the females.
Jahanara Begum, daughter of Shahjahan had a good
architectural sense. She had ordered to
build a mosque at Agra at a cost five lakh rupees. Jahanara built this mosque out of her own allowances(Lahori,
1867: 252).
She established a Madrasa in this mosque. She also
built a monastery. Jahanara also
financed to build carvanisarai of Begum Saheb. It is between the fortress and the city Agra (Op.cit, 1906:
221).
Bernier compared this Sarai of Begum Saheb to the
palace Royyall in Paris, stayed here
rich Persian, Uzbek and other foreign merchants in various chambers, in which they remained with perfect security
and the gate of Sarai being closed at
night. She also built the famous carvanisarai of Benana
(Kerakoh)(Tavernier: 49).
In the village of Achhbal she built a country house
with garden and fountains for her
personal use (Op.cit, 1867: 51).
Jahanara Begum loved gardens. Her three gardens were
in Kashmir named Bagh-i-Jahanara
designed by Jawhar Khan (Khawaja Sara), Bagh-i-Noor Afshan (constructed by Nur Jahan) Bagh-i-Safa
(Srinagar) (Kumbuh, 1988: 231). Out side
of the Delhi gate on the northern side of Chandni Chowk she laid out a
garden called Begum Ka Bagh (Op.cit,
1988: 96).
After the death of Mumtaz Mahall she inherited
Bagh-I-Jahanara (Op.cit, 1968: 99).
Raushanara Begum (Jahanara’s sister) like all Mughal
princesses built famous Roshanara garden
at Delhi(Op.cit, 1988: 100).
Zinat un Nisa Begum, daughter of Aurangzed built a
mosque after her name better known as
Kuwari Masjid or Maiden’s Mosque (Faruki, 1977: 544). It is said that she demanded the amount of her dowry and
instead of getting married, built a
mosque (Sarkar, 1925: 62).
Norris writes about princess Zinatunnisa Begum, “The
princess had built fourteen carvansarais
on the roads out of charity to poor travelers and merchants” (Norris, 1959:
236).
Zebannisa Begum, another Aurangzeb’s daughter was not
behind the other royal ladies in her
garden building, as Chau Burji proves. She bestowed it on one of her friends and planned a second garden
for herself in Nawan Kot (near Lahore).
Here she was buried; by her special order the minarets of her mausoleum were built and carved to represent four
slender marble palms (Stuart, 1913: 134-
135).
One of Aurangzeb’s wives, Azzun-Nisa Begum (bibi
Akbarabdi) built a garden in imitation
of Kashmir and Lahore (Shalimar) garden. It took four years for completion and cost about two Lakh
rupees(Ibid: 103).
Dai Anga (Zub un Nisa) wet nurse of Emperor Shahjahan
also built a mosque in 1635 A.D. The
mosque is known after her name Dai Anga Masjid presently situated near the Lahore Railway Station,
Punjab, Pakistan (Latif, 1892: 163).
Dress
Women adopted many amorous tricks to increase their
charm and beauty through various designs
of dresses. Elite women wore elegant and costly dresses; some travelers have given incredible amount of the
cost of their dresses.
Bernier observes, “The article of dress which lasts
only few hours, may cost ten to twelve
crown and even more when beautifully embroidered with needlework” (Op.cit, 1934: 259). Manucci
writes “that each garment cost forty to
fifty rupees and sometime more”.
The materials used in the dress were usually silk,
Doria (striped cloth), Zarbaft (varietes
of cloth woven by golden thread), Tiladoz, Mukkeshkar, Kamkhwab (cloth made of gold). Kalabattu and
Muslin especially the Muslin of Malwa
(Different Fabric Used for Dresses) was very popular. The merchants were ordered to send it only to Mughal Seraglio or
to nobles and courtiers of the Mughal
court (Valle, 1892: 44). The difference of the dress of royalty and
nobility and middle class lay in
quality, material, price and style.
The dress of the ladies of early Mughal period (Babur,
Humayun) seems to be an echo of the
fashion of Khurasan and central Asia (Islamic Culture, 1960). The women of the king household wore wide and
loose, painted drawers. Both Hindus and
Muslim ladies of Harem wore similar dresses. In Humayun’s times the ladies used a high crested cap called “Taqi”. It was
worn by unmarried girls. The married
women wore a Taqi with a veil hanging called Lachaq or Qasaba (Veil of caps used by married women in medieval
times)(Op.cit, 2002: 113).
The chief article of their dress was Angya (a bodice
or jacket, half or full sleeve). To
cover the lower part of the body they either wore tight fitted ornamented trousers or Langha (Op.cit, 1960).
Abdul Fazal writes the cost of duputta
varied from (6 to 8 Rs.) (Op.cit, 1964: 176). The dress covering their
head was given proper importance. Some
of the women hid their faces behind the veil
(mijar)(Op.cit, 1960). Woman of upper classes used this veil due to
strict purdah.
Ladies of aristocracy wore Qabas of fine wool of
Kashmir. Their texture of this wool was
so fine it could pass through a small finger ring (Op.cit, 1906: 341). Nur Jahan had designed the clothes in very
innovative styles. She had become the
fashion queen of her age and people followed her designs with interest.
Several varieties of brocades, lace and
gowns were introduced by this queen. She
introduced a light weight dress dodami (weight only two dams). Her panch
tola
scarf was a light substitute of orhani. She launched
new patterns in (Badla, Brocade, Kinari
(lace). She made a Nur Mahalli (marriage dress) that cost only 25 rupees (Khan, 1963: 276). Kafi Khan remarks
that the “Fashion introduced by Noor
Jahan governed the society and the old ones survived only among backward towns of Afghans” (Ibid: 275).
White dress was normally used by widows according to
Indian tradition. Hindu women were fond
of dark colour. Jagat Gosain, wife of Emperor Jahangir once wore a colorful dress. Nur Jahan who
often used white and sofistificated
colours and ironically commented “This rustic woman always select gaudy
colors. I have never seen her in sober
colour. Jagat Gosain immediately replied “A widow may select white clothes but a “Sohagan”
(married woman) must have colour
clothes”. So, Indian women normally used dresses of dark colours.
Nur Jahan also discovered Farahs I Chandni or Sandal
wood and coloured carpets became famous
in her own time (Shuja-ud-Din: 95).
An elegant item of female dress in lace according to
Manucci “They are in habit of adding.
Normally ladies of Elite class wear two or even three garments, each weighing not more than one ounce and
worth fifty rupees each. They sleep in
these clothes and renew them every twenty-four hours, never put them again
and give them away to their servants
------ they cover their heads with a sheet of cloth- ----(Op.cit, 1906:
341).
Multicoloured saris called chunris were also in
fashion. Bernier gave the illustration
of Raushenara Begum (sister of aurangzeb) wearing a sari (Op.cit, 1934: 351).
Jahanara Begum used the word dupptta which was used by
her pir and she wanted to take
this(Aslam, Trans,102).
In the reign of Aurangzeb Zebunissa introduced a woman
garment named Angiya – Kurti (Op.cit,
1967: 123).
Manucci writes, “They wear neither gloves nor
stockings on account of the great heat
which prevails in India” (Op.cit, 1906: 341).
The ladies of upper class used slippers called
“paposh”(Pa=feet, Posh=cover/ Footwear)
of various patterns embroided by silver and gold flowers. Poor women moved about without shoes (Op.cit, 1967: 123).
Imperial workshops (karkhanas) were established in the
town of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri and
Ahmadabad provided clothing and other articles to royal household (Nath, 2005: 189). Bernier says
that “The consumption of fine clothes of
gold brocade, silk, embroderies, pearls, musk, amber and sweet essences in seraglio, is greater than can be conceived”
(Op.cit, 1934: 222).
Women’s Toilets
The ladies of Mughal royalty and nobility spent most
of their times in enhancing their
physical charm. Abul Fazal describes sixteen items for women toilet, which
include bathing, anointing, braiding the hair, decking the crown of jewels for their heads, tinting with collyrium and mark paste, the sandalwood, staining the hands with henna and decorating herself with the various ornaments as nose rings, necklaces, rings, wearing a belt hung with small bells, garlands of flowers etc (Op.cit, 1964: 283).
“Their hair is always very well dressed plaited and
perfumed with scented oil” (Op.cit, 1906: 341). Girls upto the age of 12 kept
only a small tail of hair and made their
long hair into tresses bound with ribbons and richly adorned them with beautiful flowers peals and jewels(Ibid: 40).
Abul Fazal gave an interesting account by cataloguing
perfumes of Mughal age and various
methods of their preparations (Op.cit, 1964: 141-167). Mughals were lovers of perfumes as Jahangir writes in
his Tuzuk, it is of much strength in
perfume that if one drop is rubbed on the palm of hand it scents a whole
assembly and it appears as if many
rose-buds had bloomed at once (Op.cit, 1925: 271). Jahangir’s mother in law, Asmat Begum struck
upon a new method of preparing the
essence of rose or itr I Jahangiri, named it by Silma Sultan Begum(Ibid).
The aromatic essence were used in the body and rubbed
on the clothes as well. The harem ladies
in general and queens princesses in particular gave great attention to their make up from head to toe.
According to Manucci, they often receive
from the king special presents in cash under the pretext that is to buy
betel or perfumes or shoes(Op.cit, 1906:
341).
Manucci continues, “Their dresses are superb and
costly, perfumed with essence of roses.
Every day they change their clothes several times. This is due to the Vicissitudes in the weather” (Ibid: 340).
Manucci tells us that Indian ladies frequently used
Heena (Mehndi) to give red colour to
their hands and feet(Ibid: 341).
For looking brighter and preitter, a creamy ointment
called ubatan was used by both males and
females. Ladies reddened their lips with betel leaf which served them as lipstick (Ibid: 340).
Foods & Drinks
The imperial kitchen was known as Matbakh (the kitchen in Persian (Ansari, 1959: 226).
 |
| Figure 6.18: A Rajput princess smoking a hookah. Tobacco was introduced into India by the Protuguese; smoking the hookah then became an elite refinement. Abraham Early, Mughal World, A tainted Paradise. |
All the ladies of the royal harem got their daily
meals from one Matbakh (one kitchen
(Op.cit, 1964: 98-99)).
Cooking was generally concern of the professional
cooks employed in the harem. It was only
on some special occasion that ladies took some special interest in cooking. Nur Jahan is reputed to have
developed new ways to prepare and serve
food. In 1617 A.D, Nur Jahan organized a royal feast in Mandu (Op.cit,
1925: 397), where excellent food
prepared from meat and fruit was served under her directions. She contributed liberally to the
development of receipes of rare and
distinguished taste. Culinary tradition in India, actually, attributed a
number of speciality dishes to Nur Jahan
and her contribution to Mughal cuisine appear on menus in the resturants and cookbooks
(Op.cit, 2005: 221). A knife belonged to
Nur Jahan (carved with jade and gem studded fruit Knife) is now at Salar
Jung Museum in Hyderabad. It is said
that knife used by her if not for the preparation of fruit, at least for its presentation (Ibid:
221).
Jahanara Begum sometimes used to prepare some food
stuff. She writes in Riasala I Shahebiya
that she herself prepared Nan and Saag and sent it to the saint Hazrat Mian Meer (Aslam, Trans.: 96). Once
Udaipur Mahal invited Emperor Aurangzeb
to her apartment as she prepared a rogout (stew) for him (Op.cit, 1906: 276).
Abul-Fazal mentions certain kinds of food which were
prohibited for Hindus. They did not eat
those foods touched by the hands of a woman in her courses (periods), from the house of courtesan or a
singer or dancer etc (Op.cit, 1964: 276).
Sometimes, women indulged in smoking. Abraham Early in his latest edition Mughal World gave the illustration of a rajput lady enjoying Hukka (Op.cit, 2006).
(See Fig. 6.18). An attendant called Huqah-bardar” was
employed to keep it constantly going on
(Op.cit, 2005:25).
Tavernier writes especially ladies were in habit of
chewing betels throughout the day
(Tavernier, n.d.: 294). The chewing of the bettels was included in Singhar and vermillion lips with pan were considered
to enhance the beauty (Op.cit, 1964:
283).
Available references indicated the consumption of wine
in the royal harem. Babur mentions a
private party and writes, “I gave hundred shahrukhis to Tradi Baig and told him to get wine and other
things ready as I had a fancy for a private
and unrestrained party. I invited Muhammad i Qasim Barlas and Shahzada
to this party, said Tardi Baig, Hul-Hul
aniga wishes to drink wine with you, said I, “for my part I never saw a woman drink wine, invite
her” (Babur, 1975: 417). Manucci
especially attached this controversy to Begum Saheb (Jahanara). The
princes was also fond of drinking wine,
which was imported for her form Persia, Kabul and Kashmir. But the best liquor she drank was
distilled in her own house. It was most
delicious spirit made from wine and rose water, flavoured with many
costly spices and aromatic drugs. Many a
time she did me the favor of ordering some bottles of it to be sent to my house, in sign of her
gratitude for my curing people in her
harem ---- "the lady’s drinking at night, when various delightful
pranks, music, dancing and acting were
going on around her ---- sometimes she was unable to stand and they had to carry her to bed
(Op.cit, 1901: 219-220).
Manucci may not be correct in his details because
physicians were not allowed into the
harem usually, that he had observed so much detail of relaxing parties.
The Hindu families took two meals a day. The children
of the house were the first to eat. The
master of the house was second and the ladies of the house came last. The wife did not join their husband at
dining table because it was considered a
disgrace for the male members of the family (Srivastara, 1978: 8).
This study is purely the study of Cultural of elite
class women. The cultre of common Indian
Women is different topic further explore.
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Biographical Note
Dr. Rukhsana Iftikhar is working as Assistant Professor in the Department of History, University of the Punjab, Lahore-Pakistan.