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Babur’s contributions to understanding and development of linkages between Central and South Asia

 Zahid Anwar

It is an interesting study to explore linkages between  Central and South Asia in historical perspective. This piece of  research digs out the impact of increased linkages on the people  of the two regions. Central and South Asian Regions have  geographical, ethnic, historical and cultural connections. Natural  and human geography played a significant role in the transfer of  ideas and goods between the Central and South Asia. From time  immemorial important personalities and crucial events have  affected these linkages. Maurya, Kushan, Greek, Hindushahi,  Mongol, Timurid and Mughul dynasties influenced the  developments in Central Asia and South Asia. Zahiruddin  Mohammad Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi of the Indian Lodhi  dynasty in the battle of Panipat in 1526 and founded Mughal  Empire and influenced to a great extent the war technology in  the subcontinent. Babur is credited with introducing cannons in  warfare when he invaded India. During the 1st Battle of Panipat,  he has about fifteen thousand soldiers and many cannons.  Ibrahim Lodi the Sultan of Delhi on the other hand had about  forty thousand troops and hundred war elephants.  


Babur is said to have used his cannons to good effect.  The success and the new developments in its wake facilitated the  flow of ideas and natural resources and goods between South and  Central Asian Areas. This paper explores the development of  linkages in the aftermath of Babar`s Indian expeditions. It will be  useful to know Babur`s Central Asian pedigree and understand  the origins of Indian Mughal Empire in a new perspective. It also  analyses Babar`s works particularly Tuzik-e-Baburi  (Baburnama) to understand the connections between the two  regions in historical context.  

PEDIGREE:  

Zahir-ud-Din Mohammad Babur, the first emperor of  Indian Mughal Empire was born on February 23 (February 14)  1483 in the Andijan city of Namangan province in Ferghana  valley in the present day Uzbekistan. Babur in his memoirs says  that Farghana has seven separate townships, five on the south  and two on the north of the Saihun ( Syrdarya or Jaxertes). Of  those on the south one is Andijan. It has a central position and is  the capital of Farghana country. It produces much grain, fruits in  abundance, excellent grapes and melons.1 He died in Agra  (India) on 26 December in 1530 of fever at the age of 47. He was  buried 9 years later, as per his wishes, in a garden in Kabul now  known as Bagh-e-Babur. He was son of Umer Shiekh Mirza.2 

Source: Wikimedia  
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Babur was Turko-Mongol prince from Ferghana, who  inherited a small kingdom east of Samarkand when 11 years old.  He was descended from Amir Timur on father’s side and from  Genghis Khan on his mother’s. 

Babur’s Contributions to Understanding and Development … 215 

CENTRAL ASIAN MILIEU:  

The Central Asian scene was showing political  commotion in that time. There was struggle for existence in the  true sense of the term. In that survival of the fittest kind of  political environment Bubar opened eyes. The emergence of  Shaybani Khan weakened the Timuid ruling dynasties of Central  Asia. Shaybani Khan (1451-2 December 1510) defeated and  compelled the Timurids rulers to leave Samarkand, their capital  bay 1500. Babur was very young when his father died. After  several unsuccessful campaigns against Shaybani Khan, Babur  left Central Asia for the area now called Afghanistan.  

Kabul and Qandahar are two big trade markets between  Hindustan (India) and Khurasan. From Khurasan Caravans come  to Qandahar and Caravans from Kashgar, Fergana, Turkestan,  Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh, Hissar and Badakhshan come to  Kabul. In that period Kabul was a big trading center. If  merchants went to Cathay (Northern China) or Turkey, they  would make no higher profit. To Kabul come 8000 to 10000  horses every year. To Kabul come from Hindustan every year  caravans of 15000 to 20000 household heads, bringing slaves,  white cloth, sugar etc. 10 

Map of Central Asia: http://www.ce.utexas.edu/prof/mckinney/papers/aral/CentralAsiaWater -McKinney.pdf

DEPARTURE FROM CENTRAL ASIA:  

Despite several attempts Babur could not succeed to  regain his domain of Samarkand. He realized that his survival is  unlikely in that situation. He looked around for a better place.  The political conditions of Kabul domain were not stable. The  Arghun dynasty was one among the ruling dynasties of Central  Asia which ruled the area between Sindh and southern  Afghanistan from late 15th to early 16th centuries. Mukim got  control of Kabul peacefully in 1501-2 which was in tumult after  the death of its ruler Ulugh Beg Ibn Sa`id. Babur gained control  of Kabul in 1504 and Mukim left for Kandahar. Babur slowly  and gradually enlarged his Khandom by attacking Afghanistan  and capturing Kabul in 1504.12  

THE CONQUEST OF INDIA:  

The internal and external political developments affected  India in the 16th century. The rulers of India both Muslims and  Hindus did not care much about their subjects. He defeated  Ibrahim Loghi at the first battle of Panipat in 1526 and secured  north-western India. He convinced his central Asian supporters  to stay in India with him and don’t let other contenders including  Afghans and Rajputs get upper hand. He achieved those two  objectives but died in 1530. 

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Panipat_%281526%29

Mughal Dynasty produced great rulers, military  commanders, builders and administrators’. Shah Jahan (R. 1628- 58) build Taj Mahal and other magnificent buildings. Akbar (R.  1556-1605) expanded and consolidated the empire. Aurangzeb  (R. 1658-17-7) was great administrator and strengthened synergy  between the court and religious establishment.15 

Further detail will help to understand Babur conquest of  India. In his first trip to India he remained there for 5 months and  reached back to Kabul in May 1505.16 Babur rapid victories  along with his exceptional military insight provided an origin  from which to secure his control in northern India. His artillery  and his pervasive strategy of Central Asian cavalry against the  Rajputs and Afghans confirmed effectiveness. From his stay in  Transoxiana (Mawarannahr) he brought a new knowledge the  use of gunpowder.17 

Central Asian states, Kabul, the Punjab, Delhi, and other  territories of Northern India up to Gwalior in the south and till  Bihar in the East were encompassed by his empire.18 Babur won  critical wars in India because of his advanced military  technology as well as capability as a commander to inspire  discipline and mobility among his troops.19  

INTERACTION BETWEEN INDIA AND CENTRAL ASIA. 

There are more than 250 manuscripts on Central Asian  history, literature mostly in Arabic and Persian in the museums  and libraries of India. Baburnama has a lot of material on  relations between subcontinent and Central Asia in medieval  times. 20 Two-way movements for trade and culture continued  during Moghul Rule and after that. 21 Several hundreds of  manuscripts are available in Pakistan`s libraries mostly written in  Arabic and Persian in Middle ages. One research scholar  submitted Ph. D thesis on Central Asian manuscripts available in  Peshawar many of them are of Mughal era.  

In the military field he introduced innovations in India.  Irrespective of the fact that who introduced artillery in India but  credit goes to Babur for its effective use in the first battle of panipat in 1526 which turned the tables against the huge army of  Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur not only used new technology but tried to  improve it also. He got Ottoman cannon experts. They helped  him to increase number of cannons. Kabul has become a  cosmopolitan city and an important halting spot in the trade  between South and Central Asia. Babur claimed that eleven to  twelve languages are spoken on that route between the two  regions. It was purported that up from Hindustan come ten,  fifteen, twenty thousand caravans bringing slaves, cotton cloth,  refined and unrefined sugar and aromatic roots. Many merchants  are not satisfied with 300% or 400% profit. Babur earned most  of his revenue from traders through his system of taxation. They  were taxed 2.5% on silver and 5% on gold. He received a tariff  on foreign trade from 5% to 10%, an income tax on harvests  from a third to a half and a progressive wealth tax on flocks.23  

Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur established a state by the  sword but he has also provided a conducive environment, which  attracted artists and scientists. His empire was administered by  his ministers with ample sovereignty. Baburnama depicts Babur  as an orthodox Sunni Muslim who was a master of Turkic and  Persian languages. His autobiography is a masterpiece of that  genre of literature.25 Babur left violent political arena of his Inner  Asian birthplace came for Afghanistan and then established his  empire in India. His training, education, social milieu and origin  were engrossed in Persian and Turkic culture. He and his  descendants are responsible for the nurturing of this Turko Persian Culture and growth of this cultural influence in South  Asia. And this interaction produced remarkable artistic, literary  and historiographical results.26 

NATURE OF CHANGE:  

Different changes occurred in different fields after  Babur`s conquest of India in 1526. He not only improved  military technology but also tried to bring changes in the  mechanism of agricultural production. For instance Babur  introduced new crops in India and encouraged the use of  improved water lifting devices for the purpose of irrigation. His  generosity in this context helped improvement and change. The loyalty which Babur created among his followers was an  important factor in the survival of Mughal Empire despite his  early death and 15 years of Homayun Persian exile.27. Generally  the Muslim conquest of India brought many changes in almost  all sphere of life. Mughal rule gave India one official language,  new coinage and uniform administrative system. After the  establishment of Mughal Empire the Islamic concept of human  equality and brotherhood continued its appeal to the  downtrodden underdogs and lower caste people among Hindus.  Hunting, Hawking, polo and many other games were influenced  in the form and techniques.28  

Mughal rule also affected the gardening in India.  Mughal rulers liked flowers and gardens. In gardening they have  contributed a sense of precision, balance and harmony and many  local Indian imitated those plans of gardening. Central Asian  cuisine influenced Indian diet. To a considerable extent Babur  advent in India influenced Indian economy. Changes took place  in economic sector particularly trade flourished in the two  regions. It strengthened contacts between South, Central and  West Asia. A large numbers of businessmen, tourists, sufis  (mystics) travelled to Indian subcontinent from Merv, Bukhara,  Samarkand, Tashkent, Balkh, Herat, Khurasan, Persia and  Europe. The Mughals strengthened and facilitated commercial  relations with the outside world. The exchange of customs, ideas,  traditions and values took place. Towns and cities flourished due  to increased economic activities. Urbanization increased. In the  Mughal factories luxury goods of beauty and value were  produced. India is an ancient civilization. In ancient times it had  great learning institutions but with passage of time they became  stagnant. Muslims particularly Mughals brought to an end that  stagnancy. They introduced new education system through the  media of Arabic and Persian. A chain of schools and colleges  through madrasas educational system were established.29 Many  changes were brought in the Indian judicial system also. Islamic  Sharia courts were organized and made efficient to deliver  justice. This synergizing the Indian legal system with the rest of  the Muslim world facilitated movements of goods and people.  For instance it paved the ground to honour the letters of credit issued either in India or in the rest of the Muslim world  irrespective of the fact whether it were issued by Muslims or  non-Muslims. Commercial activities increased with north Africa,  the Middle East and Central Asia. A better coordination was  established between mercantile classes, administrative nobility  and religious establishment. The systemic uniformities and  coordination facilitated travellors to a great extent. For instance  it helped Ibn Batuta to become envoy and trader in Malabar,  judge in Maldives and prayer leader in India. These positions  complemented each other without any contradiction.  Government, law and religion safeguarded the interests of  merchants and traders. This led to expansion of trade and India  became rich. In the short interval in Mughal rule in India under  Shar Shah Suri some changes occurred which further facilitated  travel and travel related activities and that influenced economic  and military activities under latter Mughals. Shar Shah Suri  abolished many taxes which hindered progress of free trade. He  constructed networks of roads. From 1540 to 1544 he built G T  Road ( Grand Trunk Road) which connected Bengal to  Afghanistan. These developments influenced Indian economic,  social, political, strategic, cultural and linguistic thought processes.30  

DEVELOPMENT OF LINKAGES:  

The interaction between Central and South Asia under  Babur and his descendants provoked thoughts. The two people  tried to develop and expand convergences and minimize  divergences and a higher level of assimilation and syncretism  occurred. In the new environment Babur and his followers and  those who came from Central Asia after him retained their  identity. They introduced administrative and legal systems which  superseded the existing morals, ethics and social conduct. In this  social milieu Muslim community which was strongly Islamic in  character tried to find non violent ways of interaction with non Muslim communities of India.31 The arrival of Muslims  particularly Mughal influenced Indian culture much. This change  touched almost every aspects of life. It impacted Indian forms of  arts, cuisine, languages, architecture, urban planning, dress and  social usages, customs, traditions, conventions and values. The languages brought by Mughals particularly Arabic, Persian and  Turkic were modified by contact with local languages which led  to the creation of new languages in India. The impact of these  languages still exists in several South Asian dialects. From the  interplay between the two communities a new language Urdu,  Hindi or Hisdustani developed which helped communications  among peoples. The development of Urdu in itself is an  interesting episode it like Arabic, Persian, Turkic used Arabic  script. Around the military encampments still the centers of  administration a mixed lingua was taking form as the allied  soldiers’ coined phrases out of Persian and Hindustani. This new  language of the camps would become the Urdu of northwestern  India.32 

In the records bequeathed by a vanished age Babur  appears before us in the diverse roles of ruler, warrior,  sportsman, craftsman, author, penman, and devoted student of  Nature; and as we turn the pages of the priceless Memoirs, in  which he frankly discloses his hopes and fears, his thoughts and  deeds, we realise that we are in the presence of one of the most  human and attractive personalities that ever graced an Asiatic  throne. The colour of an autumn leaf, the hue of a tulip, the scent  of a melon, sufficed to arouse his admiration and emotion; while  his love of flowers, as has been mentioned, led to his introducing  into India the terraced gardens or pleasances, which have been  described by a modern writer as the greatest contribution of the  Mughals to Indian art. 33 

The Mughal rule was favourable for effloresce of fine  arts and development of learning and literature.34 During  Humayoun`s reign poets and scholars from all parts of Persia,  Turkestan, Bukhara and Samarqand continued to emigrate to  India in larger number than before. 35 

Mughal rule galvanized Urbanization in India due to  which many cities with fresh cultures rose. Because of this new  development traditional economies and rural areas remained less  developed. New small factories (Karkhana) developed in which  imported technologies were used. Few examples will help in this context. In ceramic tile the western and Central Asian  architectural patterns were adopted. Chinese pottery influenced  Rajasthan`s blue pottery culture. Indians were sent to Samarkand  to learn book binding and paper making. Printing flourished in  Farrukhabad (A city in India) and Muradabad(India) became  famous for brassware, Firozabad (india)emerged centre of  glassware and Saharanpur (India) for woodcarving,  Banaras(India) for jewellery, textile and Mirzapur (India) for  carpets. Once established in Agra Babur and his men found the  heat and humidity of India trying. He complains of dust and  particularly of hot winds. He regards it a matter of urgent  necessity to develop a new environment, to keep his followers  reasonably contended. In this water was to play an important  part. To improve his new kingdom, and with Samarqand always  in his mind, he began to lay out gardens. His favouite Bagh-e Wafa (the Garden of Fidelity, is described in his memoirs.36 

Steel describes Babur as the lovable, versatile, volatile  soul which wrote down its virtues and its vices, its successes and  its failures with equally unsparing truth, and equally invariable  sense of honour and humour. 37 About his memoirs Steel further  claims that it is not a novel, neither is it a history. It is the life  story of a man, taken from his own memoirs. The impression one  gets is of a tinker, tailor, soldier, sailor, gentleman, apothecary,  ploughboy and thief. 38 Babur was at one and the same time poet,  painter, soldier, athlete, gentleman, musician, beggar and King.39 

William R. is of the view that it is as a conqueror and not as an  administrator that Babur must be considered to have laid the  foundations of the Mughal Empire. 40 

UNDERSTANDING THE LINKAGES:  

Under Mughal rule Indian scientific advancements  crossed geographical boundaries and many advances in different  branches of science in the Muslim world reached India.41 From  this fine blend a new architecture came into being which can be  viewed in many cities of the subcontinent. Lahore Badshahi  Masjid (Mosque) and Taj Mahal in Agra are two good example  in this context.42 In literary context Baburnama generally and  particularly its part III is the straight forward, concise prose used by Babur.43 His longing for Central Asia is clear from his  description of India and Indians. India (Hindustan) has few  attractions. In comparative perspective he considered Indians  less attractive, with less social interaction, no manners and  concept of guest culture. Fine horses, able dogs, delightful  grapes, good quality educational institutions and other first rate  necessities are deficient. Babur complains that there is no good  bread, food, fruits, fresh cold water, hot baths, candles and  candlesticks.44  

Source: http://www.fishpond.com.au/Books/Babur-Nama-Zahir-al-Din Babur 

Baburnama is a fine piece Chagatai Turkic language.  After Ali Shar Navai it is another master piece in that language.  It encompasses not only Sufism, law, prosody, poetry but prose  as well. With out an iota of doubt Babur diary (Tuzik-e-Baburi  or Baburnama) has become one of the classic autobiographies of  world literature. It spotlights a remarkable life. Baburnama  shows a huge breadth of interests as well as clear cultivated  intelligence. Babur wrote not only in Turkic languages but in  Persian language as well. His poems in Persians reflect his  literary taste and stature. The friendly relations between Mughal  and Safavid courts further augmented this literary amalgamation.  Persian became not only language of the empire`s records but of  literary expression as well. India produced great poets and prose  writers in Persian. Akbar the grand son of Babur translated  Baburnama into Persian.45 Some experts have pointed out that  Babur Persian prose is better than his poetry. He preferred the  use of plain, clear words to express his thoughts.46  

Source: Author visited the Ali Shar Navai mausoleum in Herat in  1998  

There are few examples in the history of great  conquerors who were also immanent poets. Babur was a good  poet in Turki. Babur was one of those men who are so active in  mind and body that they are never idle and always find time for  everything. He was pre-eminently human and has drawn a  picture of himself in his memoirs in which no attempt is made to  hide either his virtues or vices. He was also one of the first  military commanders in Asia to appreciate the value of  artillery.47 

Babur describes the local flora and fauna in exquisite  detail. He says that the flying squirrel is found in these  mountains, an animal larger than a bat, with a curtain, like a bat's  wing, between its arms and legs…Tulips of many colours cover  these foothills. He says that he has counted 32 or 33 different  sorts. He developed a lifelong passion for gardening.48 The first  things which Babur observes and sees fit as being worthy to put  pen to paper are related to irrigation, settlements, mammals,  birds, and fruits. What is significant is that the descriptions are  almost done in a way a naturalist would record his observations.  Also his detailed description of the beauty of the peacock bird  shows that his interest does extend beyond detached calculations  of what is and is not valuable money-wise. Next Babur describes  the defects of India which includes a great number of things  some of which are the lack of good horses, grapes, ice/cold  water, bread and candles. The next section, which describes the  advantages of Hindustan, begins with pleasant things of  Hindustan are that it is a large country and has masses of gold  and silver. It is significant that the very first thing listed as an  advantage of Hindustan is its wealth. It seems that Babur was not  that impressed with the lifestyle of Indian people, their landscape  or their technology but was very much impressed by its wealth49 

Tuzik-e-Baburi (Baburnama) offers the keen  observations of a well educated Central Asian Muslim on his  environments. He talks about his military and political  campaigns. It is full of the detail descriptions of the natural and  human geography of Central Asia, Afghanistan and South Asia.  He has also discussed the flora, fauna, nomads, pastures, and city  life enriched by his predecessors Timurids and other ruling  Central Asian dynasties.50 The Akbar additions of miniatures and  Persian translations further help to understand the Delhi court  life. Miniature painting is one of the greatest contributions in the realm of arts by the Timurids to the world in 15th and 16th centuries. Kamaluddin Behzad miniature paintings are clear  evidence of this remarkable addition.51 The Mughal paintings not  only helps to understand the architectural similarities between  Central and South Asia but much more than that. It is a  wonderful reflection on that time and clime.52 

Source:http://landscapelover.wordpress.com/category/belgium 


Zahir-u-din Muhammad Babur was not just the first  Mughal king but one of the greatest empire builders. History as a  branch of human knowledge was much developed by Muslims.  Writing history was an established tradition in the Muslim  World. Writing royal autobiographies was something quite new  in that time. Babur established this tradition. Persian was literary language in that point in time. His grip over Persian language  was quite firm yet he preferred to write his memoirs in Chagatai  Turkic language which was his mother tongue. Baburnama is  personal, direct and lively. He starts the memoirs when he  inherited the throne at the age of 12 and ends it in September  1529 a year before his death. The reader of Baburnama knows  much about the author. It shows Babur as a lover of gardens,  melons and a great warrior. He was proud of being a Persian  poet. It tells about what he thought, saw and did. He depicts  important events of his life and the important characters who  played a role in those events. It is not just an intimate personal  portrait of a prince but of a strategist, of a describer of Indian  plant and animal life in loving detail. He said he has simply  written truth and realistically depicted what actually happened.53 



Baburnama is unique in many respects. This historic  document provides mine of information about the region in that  time. The Turkic text of the memoirs is incomplete  notwithstanding Baburnama is considered as one of the longest  sustained prose of the Turkic language. It is translated into  Persian, English, Urdu and many other languages. It shows  Babur quite clearly as a leading person of his time. In his  memoirs Babur writes about his life, how he became a king, the  political ups and downs in his career, and what compelled him to  leave his ancestral homeland. His is a record of meticulous  details. He provides very useful information about people,  history, nature and geography of his kingdom. His chronicle is  no doubt the King`s view of his time and space.54 It provides an  opportunity to know Babur`s perspective on the conflicts and  wars between peoples and nations and a vivid and attractive  panorama of the lands, traditions, societies of the South and  Central Asia. He is straightforward in his description of himself.  It is not just narration of personal panegyrics but also  acknowledgement of some personal weaknesses. On the one  hand Babur is happy with his Indian success but on the other it  clearly brings to limelight his longing for Central Asia. In the  ecstasy of success he also feels the agony for being away from  his birthplace. It not only gives glimpses of his fascinating life  but also his firm grip over the language. The detail description of  some people, their genealogies and extensive depiction of nature  may not be of interest to some readers nonetheless it is primary  source on that age and space.55 Babur`s contributions to  understanding and developments of the two regions of Central  and South Asia are acknowledged both by the people of the two  regions.56 

Babar is the link between Central Asia and India,  between predatory hordes and imperial government, between  Tamerlane and Akbar. The blood of the two great warriors,  Chingiz and Timur, mixed in his veins, and to the daring and  restlessness of the nomad Tatar he joined the culture and  urbanity of the Persian.  

It will be worthwhile to quote Stanly Lane-Poole on  Baburnama:  

“His battles as well as his orgies were humanized by a  breath of poetry. Hence his Memoirs are no rough soldier's  chronicle of marches and countermarches, 'saps, mines, blinds,  gabions, palisadoes, ravelins, half-moons, and such trumpery ';  they contain the personal impressions and acute reflections of a  cultivated man of the world, well read in Eastern literature, a  close and curious observer, quick in perception, a discerning  judge of persons, and a devoted lover of nature ; one, moreover,  who was well able to express his thoughts and observations in  clear and vigorous language. 'His autobiography is one of those  priceless records which are for all time, and is fit to rank with the  confessions of St. Augustine and Rousseau, and the memoirs of  Gibbon and Newton. In Asia it stands almost alone”.57 Pakistan  inhereted many institutions, values, systems and perspectives  from British colonial period and British Rulers of India benifited  a lot from the Mughal legacy. Pakistani society is directly and  indirectly influenced by Mughal period. In the educational  institutions of Pakistan, in its sylabi ample projection is given to  the contributions of Mughal Dynasty.58 

Source: The author visited Babur Mausoleum (Kabul) in December  1997  

The utter frankness of self-revelation, the unconscious  portraiture of all his virtues and follies, his obvious truthfulness  and fine sense of honour, give the Memoirs an authority which is  equal to their charm. If ever there were a case when the  testimony of a single historical document, unsupported by other  evidence, should be accepted as sufficient proof, it is the case  with Babar's Memoirs. No reader of this prince of  autobiographers can doubt his honesty or his competence as  witness and chronicler. 59 The power and pomp of Babar's  dynasty are gone ; the record of his life —the littera scripta that  mocks at time—remains unaltered and imperishable.60

Conclusion:  

Babar was a prolific writer and keen observer and he is  also important because he is participant observer. On the one  hand he took active part in the regional political developments in  that point in time and on the other he chronicled what happened  during his expeditions. His world renowned Baburname is an  excellent depiction of his time and clime. On the one hand it  helps to understand the ecstasy of a successful empire builder on  the other it also exposes the agony of a displaced person. In that  point in time trade flourished and exchange of people between  the two areas increased. South Asian Cuisine is much influenced  by Central Asian and Turkic food culture and vice verse. South  Asia took many names of its cities from Central Asia. Many  sufis/ saints migrated from central Asia to Indian Subcontinent.  And to a considerable extent Mughal Architecture was  influenced by Central Asian styles. Ethnic intermingling  increased which helped in understanding of the two peoples.  With advent of Zahiruddin Babar the founder of Mughal Empire  in the subcontinent Central Asian impact increased on the  Cultural and religious values and Sufi traditions. Baburnama  helps to understand the linkages between South and Central Asia  in sixteenth century and provides excellent background to those  researchers who want to understand and explore contemporary  linkages between the two regions.  

Notes and References  

1. Beveridge, A. S. (1975). Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur.  Lahore: Sange Meel Publications  

2. Fazal, A., (1902). Akbarnama, Beveridge, H. (Trans). Lahore:  Book Traders, Vol. I p.218  

3. http://www.the-south-asian.com/dec2000/Babar.htm 

4. http://www.afghanland.com/history/babur.html  

5. Justin Marozzi, Tamerlane Sword of Islam, Conqueror of the  World (Cambridge: Da Capo, 2006) P.7  

6. Ibid p.8 

7. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Babur% 27s_ancestors.PNG 

8. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Shaybani  

9.http://books.google.com.pk/booksid=VW2HJL689wgC&pg=PR5&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=f alse P.121  

10. Ibid P.146  

11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arghun_Dynasty 

12. http://www.afghanchamber.com/history/babur.htm

 13. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arghun_Dynasty 

14. Ibids  

15. Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian _subcontinent 

16. http://www.afghanland.com/history/babur.html 

17. Prawdin, M., (963). The Builders of Mughal Empire. London:  George Allen & Unwin Ltd. PP.50, 51  

18. http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Babar. html  

19. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din  

20. Evgeni Kabulkov, India and Central Asia Cultural Relations in  Middle Ages in J. N. Roy, B. B. Kumar (ed) India and Central  Asia Classical to Contemporary Periods ( New Delhi: Astha  Bharati, 2004 ) P.81  

21. Ibid p.79  

22. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din  

23. Wine and tulips in Kabul,  http://www.economist.com/node/17723207 

24. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din  

25. http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/babur/babur1.html  

26. http://www.wondersandmarvels.com/2013/01/the-baburnama an-emperor-tells-his-own-story.html 

27 http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din

 28. Impact of Muslim Conquest in India  

http://www.indianetzone.com/22/impact_muslim_conquest_in dia.htm 

29. Ibid  

30. Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent,  

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian _subcontinent 

31. Ibid  

32. Lamb, H., (1961). Babur the tiger: First of the great moguls.  New York: Doubleday & company, inc. p. 300  

33. Edwards, S. M.,( n y ) Babur: Diarist and Despot. London: A.  M. Philpot Ltd PP.15, 136,137  

34. Jaffar, S. M., (1936). The Mughal Empire: From Babur to  Aurangzeb. Delhi: Ess Ess Publications  

35. Ghani, M. A., (1930). History of Persian Language and  literature at the Mughal Court. Karachi: Indus Publications. P.  49  

36. The Gardens of Mughal India: A History and a Guide. (1972).  London: Thames and Hudson  

37. Steel, F. A. ( 1912). King-Errant. New York: Frederick A.  Stokes Company  

38. Ibid  

39. Ibid  

40. Williams, R. (1918). An Empire Builder of the sixteenth  Century. London: Longmans Green and Co. P.163  

41. Op. Cit. Muslim Conquest  

42. Ibid  

43. http://farazharoon.wordpress.com/2011/11/19/what-is significant-about-baburs-description-of-india  

44. Wine and tulips in Kabul,  http://www.economist.com/node/17723207

http://www.economist.com/node/17723207 

46. Ibid  

47. Denison, E. Babur in The Cambridge History of India.( 1987).  Mughal Period. Delhi: S. Chand and Company.pp.14,19,  

48. http://www.economist.com/node/17723207  

49. http://farazharoon.wordpress.com/2011/11/19/what-is significant-about-baburs-description-of-india  

50. http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/babur/babur1.html  

51. Persian Miniature Paintings,  http://paintingsgalleries.blogspot.com/2008/11/persian miniature-painting.html  

52. http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Babar. html  

53. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babor-zahir-al-din  

54. http://www.complete 

review.com/reviews/orientalia/babur.htm  

55. Ibid  

56. The author is thankful to prof Meroyert Kh. Abusseitova, who  is a renowned expert on regional languages manuscripts and  Head, Department of oriental source studies, history and  culture of the East, UNESCO Chair holder/ Director, R. B.  Suleimenov, Institute of Oriental Studies, at the Ministry of  Education and of the Republic of Kazakhstan, for her  comments on this aspect of Babur`s legacy in a personal  interview at Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan on 8  August 2013  

57. Lane-Poole, S., (1899) Rulers of India: Babar. Oxford: The  Claredon Press. PP.9,12  

58. The author is thankful to Prof. Dr. Dilorom Alimova, Institute  of History, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Tashkent for her  valuable comments on this aspect of MughalRule in a  personal interview at Astana on 8 August 2013.  

59. Ibid. P.13  

60. Ibid. P. 16 

 

🙣 The author presented this paper in ESCAS International  Conference at Nazarbayev University Astana, Kazakhstan  in August 4-7, 2013. The author is thankful to Higher  Education Commission of Pakistan for funding this  research project



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