Muhammad Riaz Mahmood*
Muhammad Irfan Ahmad
Department of Islamic Studies,
University of Gujrat, Gujrat, Pakistan
Hafiz Adil Jahangir
Institute of Islamic Perspectives and Guidance
University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
Abstract
Islam provides an
absolute religious freedom to the followers of all the religions. The
Muslims promoted peace, mutual respect, inter-faith harmony and religious
equality in the Sub-Continent in this ideological prospective. The Mughal
rulers not only continued this glorious Islamic tradition but also
promoted it on a very large scale. Aurangzeb Alamgir is one of those
Mughal rulers who not only granted religious freedom to the non-Muslim
inhabitants of India rather he honored many non-Muslims especially the
Hindus with important public offices. He took special steps for their
comprehensive socio-religious welfare and progress. He not only provided
security to the contemporary religious worship places of the non Muslims, but
also allowed them to build new religious as well as educational
institutions where they wanted. Contrary to the historical facts, some of the
partial writers accuse Aurangzeb Alamgir to be prejudiced and cruel
towards his non Muslim subjects, particularly the Hindus. They think that
Aurangzeb Alamgir demolished the Hindu temples as well as the Hindu
schools. He increased the amount of “Jizya”, took some steps for
forced religious preaching and the Hindus were expelled from public
services and official posts. But, these allegations do not match the historical
realities. This research article aims to conduct a thorough and an
impartial analysis of these allegations.
Keywords: Aurangzeb Alamgir,
Inter-Faith Harmony, Islam, Mughals, Sub Continent
Introduction
Islam teaches religious tolerance, peace and mutual respect. The Muslim history is full of several glorious instances related to the welfare of the non- Muslims. The Muslim rulers of the Indian sub-continent established relations with the Hindus, Sikhs, Christians and the followers of many other religions at a vast level. The non-Muslim masses were very happy and satisfied rather they were very grateful to the Muslim rulers. Justice, peace and mutual respect were highly valued during the Muslim era in the Indian sub-continent. The Muslim rulers provided complete religious freedom to the non-Muslims, they were facilitated to build their respective worship places, they were given the opportunity to participate in the political process, they were granted scholarships and were offered jobs in the public services. Aurangzeb Alamgir has a remarkable history among the Muslim rulers of the sub-continent who made great contributions to promote inter-faith harmony. Contrary to these historical facts, some prejudiced historians have tried to prove him a cruel, partial and bad ruler. These historians claim that Aurangzeb demolished the worship places of the non-Muslims, the taxes were increased in the name of “Jizya,” the forced preaching of Islam was practiced and the Hindus were expelled from the public services and important positions. They want to make this great Mughal ruler’s personality controversial through these allegations and baseless historical tales. They also wish to present the proud Muslim history in a wrong and manipulated perspective. It is the need of the hour to have a thorough and an impartial analysis of these objections, misconceptions and ambiguities. It is necessary to analyze these objections in the light of reliable and authentic historical sources. This research topic has been selected to fulfill this need of the literary and scholarly circles.
Many writers and
historians have discussed Mughal dynasty’s general steps taken towards
the overall socio-political, economic and religious welfare of the
non-Muslims especially the Hindus. They have taken up the Mughal rulers’
policy towards the non-Muslims in several important books. Some of the
important books which have been written in this regard include; Molvi
Ahmad Din, “Orang Zaib”1,Sardar Azeem ullah Khan,” Orang
Zaib,” 2 Munshi Muhammad Kazim,”Alamgeer Nama,”3 Muhammad
Saqi Khan Mustaed,” Maasar Alimgeeri,”4 Muhammad Masoom,” Fatoohat-e-Alamgeeri,5Khazfi
Khan,” Muntakhab Allubaab,”6 Naimat Khan Aali,” Waqaee,”7
Naimat Khan Aali,” Jung Nama”8and Professor Saeed ul
Haq,”Muhammad Bin Qasim say Orang Zaib Tak.”9 But, these
writers have generally elaborated the religious attitude of the Mughals
towards the non-Muslims in India. Most of them have not addressed and
analyzed the objections labeled against the Mughal rulers, especially
Aurangzeb Alamgir of being prejudiced and cruel towards the non-Muslim
community of India. They have not specifically highlighted the Aurangzeb
Alamgir’s policy of inter-faith harmony during his rule in the
sub-continent.
This article is
comprised of four parts. The first part is about its introduction which
consists of three components; the background of the research topic,
literature review and internal distribution of the article. The second part
consists of the Muslim tradition of inter-faith harmony and the general
attitude of the great Mughals in this regard. The third part comprises of
Aurangzeb Alamgir’s policy of inter-faith harmony during his rule in
India, the objections labeled against him of prejudice and partial
attitude towards the Hindus. The fourth and the last part is consisted of
the conclusion.
2. The Muslim Tradition
of Inter-Faith Harmony and the Great Mughals
Inter-faith harmony is
such a comprehensive and multi-dimensional philosophy which comprises of
tolerance, kindness, non-violence, justice, equality and integration. It
is necessary to provide complete religious freedom to all the followers
of the different religions, their religious rituals should not be objected
or banned, they should not be tortured or insulted on the basis of
religious differences rather the difference of opinion must be tolerated
to achieve this ideal position. Islam has emphasized on the teachings of
religious co-existence. The Holy Qur’ān has laid great stress on the need
to build a pleasant society on the basis of common points among the
believers of different religions.10 Islam has also preached to
ensure the security of the worship places of the non-Muslims.11 It
has also ordered to maintain justice even with the worst rival groups and
enemy nations.12 The followers of Islam have been guided to
tolerate the difference of opinion in the Holy Qur’ān.13 The Muslims have been
forbidden to abuse the non-Muslims on the basis of their religious
beliefs and they have also been asked not to use any abusive language
against their religious heads.14 They have been advised to
adopt a well-mannered and highly cultured discourse related to religious
differences.15 The Muslims have also been instructed to follow the
golden principles of wisdom, intellect and softness to preach the
religion.16 It has been clearly declared in the Holy Qur’ān
that there is no room for any forced actions and commandments in the
religious matters.17 Due to these Islamic teachings, narrow
mindedness, hurling abuses to the enemies, cruelty, injustice and torture
came to an end. The prisoners of war were treated very well, inter-faith
dialogue was promoted and the culture of peace treaties was enhanced. The
history of the world has been unsuccessful to present any such example of
great humanitarian behavior towards one’s worst enemies as was done by
the Prophet of Islam on the remarkable occasion of the conquest of
Makkah.
The Muslim rulers devised plans for the socio-economic and political welfare of the non-Muslims. They were provided with the best facilities of health and education, the peace missions were sent to their respective territories, their religious places were built and safeguarded, they were offered public services and important strategic positions, their religious heads were honored and they were given the opportunity to take part in politics. The Mughal rulers of India not only continued these great traditions of religious harmony, but also promoted and strengthened them. They introduced such an administrative structure which established an environment of religious co-existence in the society. The first Mughal king, Babar advised his son, Humayon not to have any religious prejudice against the non-Muslims and asked him to regard and respect the religious rituals of the people of different religions and not to demolish their worship places.18 Babar himself treated the Hindus with great kindness during his rule.19
Humayon is also known
for his vision of inter-faith harmony during his rule in India. Aaraish
Khan is one of those well-known Hindu Lords who were appointed at the key
designations by him.20 The Great Mughal emperor Akbar had
splendid relations with the Hindus. He abolished the well-known tax imposed
on the non-Muslims “Jizya”. He honored the Hindus with important
public posts. Raja Bhagwan Das and Raja Maan Singh were the well-known
commanders in the Mughal army during Akbar’s era.21 Even,
Akbar established marriage relations with the Hindu community. He married
his son, Prince Saleem with Maan Bai, the daughter of his army commander,
Raja Bhagwan Das.22 Akbar promoted an ideal environment of
mutual relationship of co-existence with the non-Muslims, especially the
Hindus. He had excellent relations and regard for the scholars, writers
and intellectuals of different religions.23 He created an atmosphere
of such ideal equality, fraternity and brotherhood in which he banned the
slaughtering of the sacred cow, the Holy Mother of the Hindus.24Jahangir
appointed Maan Singh governor of Bengal, Raja Juggan Nath was granted
with the honorable designation of “Punj Hazari,” Rana Shankar was
given a key post in the Mughal army, while Tappar Das was appointed the
officer in-charge of the artillery.25 Jahangir built a temple
in his palace where the Holy statue of Hanuman was erected so that his
Hindu Mother, Hindu wives, their friends and maid servants could perform
their religious rituals and prayers there.26Jahangir not only
granted religious freedom to the Christian missionaries, but they were
also allowed to preach their religion.27 Shah Jahan’s mother Juggat
Gusain known as Bilqees Zamani belonged to a Hindu Rajput family. He had
a very soft corner for the Hindus especially the Rajputs.28 He
honored the poets of Hindi and Sansikrat very much and awarded them with
different rewards. He took extraordinary interest in the promotion and
expansion of Hindi and Sansikrat languages.29 Aurangzeb
Alamgir inherited the tradition of social equality and mutual welfare
from his forefathers. He had glorious examples of inter-faith harmony
before him as legacy which became the basis of his religious policy
during his reign.
3. Aurangzeb Alamgir on
Inter-Faith Harmony: Objections and Realities
Aurangzeb Alamgir
(1027-1118 Hijra) was the 6th ruler of the Mughal
dynasty. He was known for his intellect, hard work, piousness and bravery.30
He was fortunate to be educated by the greatest scholars of that era like
Nawab Saad ullah Khan, Mir Muhammad Hashim, Mullah Muhammad Salah, Afzal
Khan, Sheikh Abdul Qavi, Sheikh Ahmad Mullah Jivan, Mullah Mohan Mohy
Uddin Behari, Danishmand Khan, Molvi Syed Muhammad Qunuji and Molana
Abdul Latif Sultan Puri.31 He was highly qualified and expert
in Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindi languages.32 He was the
first Mughal ruler who learnt the Holy Qur’ān by heart.33 He had
special interest in both the forms of literature, prose and verse. He had
great love for history, Hadīth, Jurisprudence and mysticism. He loved and
preferred to spend most of his time in the library.34
Aurangzeb was said to
have the qualities of chivalry, leadership and administration of the
state affairs. He had great love and taste for the promotion of Islamic
values and traditions. He did a splendid job for the public welfare
during his era, taxes were decreased, the drugs, especially drinking of
wine was banned, unnecessary co-gatherings of the people were banned,
music concerts were not allowed, the “Satti,” gambling and dancing
were also banned as well as the wearing of gold, silver and silk dresses
were also prohibited. He also imposed ban on imprinting the Holy Article
“Kalma Tayyabah” and the Holy verses of the Holy Qur’ān on the
coins. This act not only ended the disregard of the Holy verses, but also
the feelings of the non-Muslims were regarded, as the currency (the
coins) was being used by both the Muslims as well as the non-Muslims.
Contrary to these historical facts, some of his critics have controversialized
his efforts and steps towards inter-faith harmony during his rule.
Rather, they have raised some serious allegations against his religious
policy towards the non-Muslims. Here are some of the important accusations against
his religious agenda. A genuine and impartial analysis of these
allegations has been undertaken to bring about the true picture.
3.1 Demolition of Hindu
Temples
Some of the prejudiced
Hindu writers have accused Aurangzeb Alamgir of demolishing the Hindu Temples
and destroying their educational institutions. 35According to
Dr. Ishwari Prasad, Aurangzeb Alamgir ordered his officials to destroy all the
Hindu temples and schools to stop the Hindus from idol worshiping in Banaras
and Mithra.36 This point of view does not agree to the historical
facts related to Aurangzeb Alamgir’s religious policy of inter-faith
harmony towards the non-Muslims, especially the Hindus. The primitive and
historical temples of Dehli, Binaras, Aagra and Dakkan are a living
testimony of Aurangzeb Alamgir’s religious tolerance. He not only ensured
the security of these temples, but also granted lands, donations and
stipends to these religious places.37 He stopped all types of
interference in the construction of new temples. He also ordered not to
tease any Brahman in observing his religious rituals. Most probably, there
would have been some political based demolitions of Hindu temples instead
of religiously motivated reasons. 38The temples located in the
surroundings of Aurangzeb’s palace in Dakkan, including Dolatabad
remained safe and sound. They are still regarded as master pieces and are
visited by tourists from far off places. Aurangzeb Alamgir did not stay
in Dakkan for a number of days and spent almost twenty six years of his
age there. He would have passed by those temples with his huge army for
several times but he did not harm those temples. Was it possible for an idol
breaker to ignore such important Hindu temples on his way? There are
thousands of temples in Dehli, Aagra, Mithra and in other parts of India
which were also
present in Alamgir’s
period, where not only the temples are safe today but the precious
statues are also as safe as they were in Alamgir’s rule. Besides, all
these historical realities he is blamed of being a demolisher of the
Hindu temples and an enemy of the Hindu community. Although, almost all
of India remained under the rule of Alamgir, but the Hindu faith remained
safe. Aurangzeb was, of course, well aware of the fact that it was not
good for his rule to raise the anger of Hindus by demolishing their
worship places. That’s why, most of the temples of that period remained safe
and they maintained their religious sanctity.
3.2 Receiving of Jizya
Some partial Hindu
historians accuse Aurangzeb Alamgir of increasing Jizya on the Hindus.
According to them, Jizya was increased just to enslave and depress
the Hindus so that they could be forced to abandon their religious faith.39
Ishwari Prasad has narrated an incident in this regard. According to him,
when Alamgir passed the constitution of increasing and receiving “Jizya”
on the Hindus they went to his court in the form of a delegation and
appealed him to abolish Jizya. The king became infuriated and
ordered his soldiers to torture them instead of honoring their request.
They were badly injured under the heavy feet of elephants. The Hindus
came back hopeless as well as helpless.40 He tried to increase the
state revenue by increasing the forced Jizya on the Hindus.41
All the non-Muslim historians who have narrated stories of Alamgir’s “Jizya”
policy towards the Hindus are most probably unaware of the historical
facts. In fact, Jizya was a Shari‘ah tax which was used to
be taken from the non-Muslims. The non-Muslims who paid this tax were
exempted from rendering services in the war. According to the Islamic Shari‘ah
such a tax, “zakat” is also taken from the Muslims. But the Muslims
are bound to fight for the security of the Muslim state, even after
paying Zakat. Since zakat cannot be imposed on the non-Muslims, they are
asked to pay “Jizya”. Before the Mughals the amount of “Jizya”
was about ten rupee to forty rupee per annum. But, in Aurangzeb’s regime it was
never ever increased rather it was decreased according to some impartial
writers. “Jizya” was imposed only on the head of the family and
the other members of the family, except than the head were exempted from
this tax. Jadunath Sarkar was, perhaps unaware of the past history of the
Muslims. That’s why, he considered people who paid “Jizya,” as slaves.
There is no doubt about the fact that Islam is the first religion on this
Earth that treated its subjects with great kindness, love, justice and
equality. Of course, it imposed “Kharāj” and “Jizya” on the
non-Muslims. Kharāj was taken from those non Muslim who used to be
farmers. It can be termed as “Agriculture Tax”. In fact, Jizya was
an urban tax which was taken from the people living in urban areas. The
non-Muslims believe that Islam is the founder of the word “Jizya” and it
was meant to create a socio-economic and religious discrimination among
the Muslims and the non-Muslims. According to them “Jizya” was
such a threat which sometimes, could not save the newly converted Muslims
from paying it, as they did before embracing Islam. But all these
opinions were the result of historical misconceptions and
misunderstandings.
3.3 Forced Conversion of
Faith
Some of the prejudiced
historians think that Aurangzeb increased the amount of Jizya and
issued strict orders to collect it from the Hindus with iron hands. Most
of the Hindus who were insulted by the Jizya collectors, unwillingly
converted their faith and became Muslims. These historians believe that
Aurangzeb Alamgir used this tool to force the Hindus to abandon their
faith.42 According to these partial writers, Aurangzeb Alamgir
Banned the Hindu rituals like fairs, seasonal and religious festivals of
the Hindus. Except Rajputs, rests of the Hindus were not allowed to use
palanquins and ride of good horses. He tortured and crushed the Hindu
Protest in this regard. They were forced to follow his orders.43
The historical facts do
not prove these allegations of the prejudiced historians labeled against
Aurangzeb. An impartial study of the history demonstrates that Aurangzeb
never forced the Hindu community for the conversion of their belief.
History proves that he was so just, kind and generous towards the Hindus that
they started embracing Islam willingly. He honored all those who were
brought to his court to embrace Islam willingly and were awarded with
Royal dresses and big bounties. If any of the prominent Hindus would come
to him for this purpose, the king himself recited the Holy Qalma for
him and granted gracious awards for him. He never ever forced any Hindu
to convert his faith by sword. He never banned or demolished primitive
Hindus worship places. The prominent Hindus present in his court like
Raja Jay Singh and Maharaja Jaswant Singh and thousands of other Hindu Rajputs
would have been forced to accept Islam if it had been the policy of
Aurangzeb. These events prove that Aurangzeb never intended it and never did
so. It can be said, undoubtedly, that he did everything for the sake of
inter-faith harmony and not for prejudiced behavior or forced conversion
of the faith.44 Also the king made no effort to force his
wife, daughter-in-law and the rest of the Rajputs, men and women to
convert their faith. He never introduced any institution for the preaching
of Islam, then how it is possible to force the Hindus to abandon their
faith. Although, today, even in the civilized European society has allowed
a department of missionaries in their respective countries. This mission
is doing missionary activities all over the world. These facts prove that
it is not right to label Aurangzeb of being religiously prejudiced
against the non-Muslim communities of India.45
4. Banning and Terminating the Hindus from State
Services
Some of the prejudiced
writers blame Aurangzeb Alamgir of banning public and state services on
the Hindus. They also believe that most of the Hindu officials and
servants were terminated from their respective professions after the
orders issued by the king himself in this direction. It is said that
Aurangzeb Alamgir ordered that the Muslims should only be the tax
collectors and the crowns of the lands. Aurangzeb Alamgir ordered to
dismiss all the Hindu viceroys and Taluqdars with their peshkars as
well. He also dismissed the diwanian and they all were replaced by
the Muslims. It is also said that Aurangzeb Alamgir dismissed all the
Hindu writers from his court with one stroke of his royal pen.46 According
to some partial writers, Aurangzeb Alamgir banned the appointments of
Hindus in the department of finance on the basis of their habit of
stealing, usury and bribery. Aurangzeb Alamgir had to amend his orders when the
number of officials in the department became inadequate to run the
department. Afterwards, 50 percent jobs were fixed for the Hindus and
same percentage for the Muslims. This allegation seems to be true as the number
of Hindus were far more in number before this incident. Usually,
Aurangzeb Alamgir did not discriminate the Hindus and the Muslims on the
basis of the religion rather he preferred merit.47 There is
another incident narrated in this direction where impartiality of
Aurangzeb Alamgir is proved. A public office holder visited the royal
court and recommended a Muslim to be appointed in the royal palace to
replace a Hindu official to distribute the salaries of the royal
servants. He argued that the Muslim officials and experts should be
appointed at key places instead of the non-Muslims. The king replied “The
religion has nothing to do with the state and worldly affairs. If
recommendations are honored and it is accepted as the merit and rule of the
state then the whole of the structure of the state would change. What
would happen to the non-Muslim rulers and the non-Muslim officials? The
king appoints people at any key places and grants them designations on
merit and eligibility and religious interference or recommendation has
nothing to do with it.”48 The matter of the fact is that the
historical events and facts do not agree to the allegations labeled
against Aurangzeb Alamgir by the prejudiced writers and historians. It is
a historical fact that the chief of the army of Aurangzeb Alamgir was Raja Jay
Singh. Aurangzeb Alamgir never ever trusted and discussed state matters
with any of the Muslim commanders or even with successors in the life of Raja
Jay Singh. Aurangzeb Alamgir terminated his maternal uncle, Amer-ul-Umra
Shaista Khan from Dakkan and appointed General Maharaja Jay Singh as
commander to fight against Siwa Ge. Aurangzeb Alamgir had handed over the
important province of Kabul to his worst enemy and the rebel of Mughal
dynasty where most of the population was comprised of Muslims. No
prejudiced ruler can do this. The Hindu Rajputs had been fighting against his
enemies for over 50 years and he never ever doubted their loyalty with
the state. Sometimes, Aurangzeb Alamgir doubted the sincerity of his own
sons but not of the Hindu Rajputs.49 Is it not a proof of his
justice, kindness and harmony towards the non-Muslims? Such historical
realities deny all the allegations of banning and terminating the
non-Muslims, especially the Hindus from state services. The critics
should evaluate these historical facts impartially before putting such
baseless accusations on the religious policy of Aurangzeb Alamgir towards
his non-Muslim masses.
5. Concluding
Remarks
The religious harmony
has an important place in Islamic teachings. The Holy Prophet (PBUH)
himself, his four caliphs, his followers and the following Muslim rulers in
different parts of the world have been making their best possible efforts
to create and maintain inter-faith harmony in their respective periods, in the
light of the great humanitarian teachings of Islam. The Muslim history
has glorious examples of this humanitarian tradition. The Mughal dynasty
in the sub-continent which remained in power almost for three hundred
years not only continued this
great tradition of
inter-faith harmony, but they also promoted it to a very great extent. They
took every possible step to bring about inter-faith harmony in the
multi-religious society of India. Aurangzeb Alamgir is perhaps one of such
Mughal rulers who did a tremendous job in this direction. He not only
ensured the security of the Hindu temples but also provided complete
freedom to the followers of the Hinduism to perform their religious rituals
according to their faith and belief. He granted huge lands and amounts to
the temples and the Hindu schools. He allowed them to build new temples
and educational institutions where they desired. In fact, the allegations
against Aurangzeb Alamgir of being prejudiced and cruel towards the Hindu
community are not true. The historical facts deny these objections rather
they prove him to be a great humanitarian and religiously unprejudiced ruler
who did everything for the well-being of the non-Muslims irrespective of
their religious belief.
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Notes
1. Molvi Ahmad Din, Orang Zaib (Lahore:
System Press, 1905), 76-80.
2. Azimullah Khan, Impact of Mughal Era
(Lahore: Fiction House, 2015), 98-101.
3. Munshi Muhammad Kazim, Alamgirnaama
(Calcutta: Asiatic Society, 1868).
4. Ibid., 212-215.
5. Molvi Ahmad Din, Orang Zaib,
106.
6. Khazfi khan, Muntakhab Allubaab
(Karachi: Nafees Academi, 1976). 54.
7. Ibid., 321.
8. Ibid., .
9. Ahmad Din, Orang Zaib, 75.
10. āl-e-Imran 3:64.
11. al- Hajj 22:40.
12. al-Maida 5:8.
13. al-Kafirūn 109:6.
14. al-An’ām 6:108.
15. al- Ankabūt 29:46.
16. al-Nahal 16:125.
17. al-Baqarah 2:256.
18. Muhammad Ikram, Rood-e- Kausar
(Lahore: Idara Saqafat-e-Islamia, 2005), 23.
19. Ishwari Prasad, A Short History of
Muslim Rule in India: From the Advent of Islam
to the Death of Aurangzeb (Allahabad: Indian Press Limited, 1925), 144.
20. Gulbadan Begum, Humayon Nama, trans.
Usman Haider Mirza (New Delhi: New Delhi
Press, 2010), 3.
21. Ishwari Prasad, A Short History of
Muslim Rule in India: From the Advent of Islam
to the Death of Aurangzeb (New Delhi: The Indian Press, 1930), 182.
22. Sabahuddin Abdur Rahman, Hindustan
ke Musalman Hukmarano ke Ehed ke
Tamuddini Jalvey (Azam Gurh: Muarif Press, 1980), 496.
23. Noor Uddin Muhammad Jahangir,
Tuzk-i-Jahangiri, trans. Ijaz ul Haq Quddosi
(Lahore: Majlis Tarriq-e-Adab, 1968), 85-86.
24. Shoukat Ali Qasmi Bastvi, Islami
Rawadari Qur’ān-o-Hadees Aur Tareekhi
Shawahid Ki Roshni Main (Deoband: Dar-ul-Uloom Press, 2015), 107.
25. Shibli Naumani, Maqalat-e-Shibli
(Azam Gurh: Muarif Press, 1989), 109-110.
26. Sabah uddin Abdur Rahman, Hindustan
ke Ehd-e-Mazi main Musalmano ki Mazhabbi
Rawadari (Azam Gurh:Shibli Academy, 2009), 124.
27. Beni Prasad, History of Jahangir (New
Delhi: New Delhi Press, 1990), 326-328.
28. Abdur Rahman, Hindustan ke
Ehd-e-Mazi main Musalmano ki Mazhabbi Rawadari,
152-153.
29. Francois Bernier, History of the
Late Revolution of the Empire of the Great Mogol (Paris: Chandeigne Press,
2008), 609-610.
30. Shamas Brelivi, Aurangzeb Khatoot k
Ainey Main (Karachi: Madina Publishing
Company, 1970), 15.
31. Zain-ul Abadien Sajjad Mirhathi,
Tareekh-e-Millat (New Delhi: Nadwatul
Musanafin, 1970), 18-20.
32. Rasheed Akhtar Nadvi, Aurangzeb
(Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 2009), 20- 30.
33. Aziz Hassan Baqai, Alamgir (New
Delhi: Ghazi Printing Works, 19300, 8-10.
34. Stainley Lane Pol, Aurangzeb,
trans., Molvi Mohammad Latif (Lakhnau: Monshi
Novil Kashor, 1920), 30-35.
35. Sarkar Jadunath, History of Aurangzeb
(Calcutta: Sarkar and Sons Limited, 1928),
264-265.
36. Prasad, A Short History of Muslim
Rule in India: From the Advent of Islam to the
Death of Aurangzeb, 209.
37. Mehta Jenami Gee, Aurangzeb ki
Zindagi ka Roshan aur Asli Pehlu (Meerath:
Washo Sahta Bhindar, 1960), 59-60.
38. Shoukat Ali Fehmi, Hindustan per
Mughlia Hukomat (New Delhi: Khawaja Barki
Press, 2010), 221-222.
39. Jadunath, History of Aurangzeb,
149.
40. 0Prasad, A Short History of Muslim
Rule in India: From the Advent of Islam to the
Death of Aurangzeb, 209.
41. Tara Chand, Ahl-e-Hind ki Mukhtasir
Tareekh (New Delhi: Urdu Academy, 1980),
42. L. P. Sharma, History of medieval
India (New Delhi: Konark Publishers Pvt.
Limited, 1987), 398.
43. Jadunath, History of Aurangzeb,
274-275.
44. Muhammad Ayub Khan, Alamgir Hinduon
ki Nazar Mein (Uttar Pardesh:Maktaba
Ibrat, 1938), 69.
45. Molvi Ahmad Din, Orang Zaib,
122.
46. Nicholas Manochi, Storia domogar,
trans. Malik Raj Sharma (Lahore: Arya Steam
Press, 1940), 158.
47. Om Parkash Prasad, Aurangzeb Aik
Naya Zavia-e-Nazar, trans., Faizan Rasheed
(Patna: Oriental Public Library, 1996), 21.
48. Shoukat Ali Fehmi, Hindustan per
Mughlia Hukomat, 225.
49. Ibid., 219.
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