By: R.B. Azad Choudhary Assistant Professor, Hindu College, University of Delhi
International Journal of History and Cultural Studies (IJHCS) Volume 3, Issue 1, 2017, PP 1-18
ISSN 2454-7646 (Print) & ISSN 2454-7654 (Online) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.20431/2454-7654.0301001 www.arcjournals.org
Abstract: This paper is an effort to study about the Mughal military culture
and socio-economic importance of horses during the Mughal period. It
explores the military and economic significance of the horses and its
importance in the cavalry that was the mainstay of the Mughal army.It was the
Mughal army that was the vanguard of the Mughal expansion. The most
crucial feature of the Mughal army was its cavalry. The centrality of the
horses in the cavalry regiment helped in the centralisation of the Mughal
Empire.1The Mughal cavalry was admixture of „Turco-Mongol‟,
Central Asian, Middle East Asian and Indian warriors, especially the
horsemen. Apart from the military man power, the geographical fringes of the
above mentioned also procured/supplied the best quality of the Arabian,
Persian, Turki, Tuzuki, Qabuli, Qandhari and Janglah Horses to the
Mughals. 2 The good horses were imported to the Mughal state from
Arabia, Iran, Turan, Turkey, Turkestan, Badakhshan, Shirwan, Qirghiz,
Tibbet, Kashmir and other countries. This paper argues that the
centrality of the horses in the Mughal „military-civil‟ necessities encouraged
the Emperors to establish control on the trade of war-horses, land-routes
and other enterpots of the horses. The safety and security provided to
trading activities was aimed to encourage the continuous supply of war-horses
to the Mughal army. The continuous procurement of war-horses from Central
Asian regions and neighboring countries established the Mughal
superiority in cavalry warfare. Apart from the land routes, horses were also
imported trough the sea routes, mainly from the countries of the Safavids and
the Ottomans and the Uzbeks. Kabul and Qandhar were the major entrepots
on the land-routes in the Mughal India for the horse traders. The ports of
Surat, Cambay, Kutch, Thatta,,Lahori Bandar and Sonargoan were the major
entrepots for the bahri horses. This paper suggests that due to the
crucial role of horses in the state building, the Mughals encouraged horse
trading and invested in horse breeding too. In order to establish control
over the horse trade, the Mughal Emperors established friendly and
diplomatic relations with the neighbouringcountries, provided protection to
merchants and facilitated the trade by constructing proper roads and
caravansarais and controlled the banditry through suppressing tribal and
local insurgency. Apart from the construction of the fortified post at regular
intervals, the Mughal Emperors also issued farmans on regular intervals
addressed to the state officials (like amin, mansabdars, kotwals,
zamindars and mutasaddis etc), for the remission of taxes for promoting the
horse trade. They further suggested to officers to reduce heavy taxes and
to provide proper safety and security to the merchants and their
merchandise to encourage the trade within India. Due to the centrality of the
horses, the horse traders even enjoyed close ties with the courtiers, and
got multiple favours and administrative post in return. This paper also
argues that the horses have been culturally considered more than the
„resources‟ and „units of state-formation‟. The utility and significance
of horse in domestic, military and commercial milieu revealed its
symbolic value and it became a representative of power and authority. This
research is an effort to highlight the significance of the animal, who
was mainstay of the Mughal military.
Keywords: military-civil, bahri,
luharnis, caravansarais, khasa entrepots, mutasaddi, darogha
1. INTRODUCTION
The Mughal had always
given weightage to cavalry in their army structure.3 It was the
elementary and most reliable structure of their army. The horses were the
integral part of the Mughal‟s military and political culture which was
specially used for the aristocratic occupations of war, pageantry and
riding.4 The ranking of the Mughal mansabdars were
represented by the dual rank of zat and sawar; the
former determined mansabdar‟s personal pay (talab-i-khasa) and
his status in official hierarchy and the latter (sawar) rank
indicated the size of cavalry (horses and horsemen) unit under his
command as well as the sanctioned amount of payment for maintaining the
horsemen.5 It also draws attention to the importance of
warrior-administrators as an integral part of Mughal bureaucratic
structure.6 William Irvine has provided the detailed accounts on the
number of the cavalry forces employed in the army of various Mughal
emperors.7 The estimated number of the cavalry force under
Mughal Emperor Muhamad Shah was 200,000; which was approximately half of the
cavalry strength of Mughal Emperor Akbar.8 Throughout the dominant
Mughal period, 1526-1707 A.D., the Mughals maintained a larger cavalry
force and it was their main military strength.
The excessive hot and
humid ecological conditions of India were not favourable for the ideal
breeding of the horses. Due to hot and monsoon conditions the breeding of
the best quality of horses was not possible in India. The adverse
variations in Indian topography also decreased the standard life span and
breeding capacity of the horses. Further, the Indian grasses were less
nutritional in comparison of the grasses of the Central and Middle-East
Asia. In India the breeding was popular in certain limited areas but
their standard was lower than the Arabian, Persian and Turki horses.9
The Indian breed of the horses was not able to match the standard and
quality of the horses imported from the foreign countries. Therefore, to
attain the superior quality of horses in the imperial army, the Mughals
heavily depended on the horse trade from the countries of Arab, Iran and
Central Asia. The arid zone of Middle-East Asia and Central Asia was the
soul and centre for the breeding and produced the best quality horses,
like Arabian, Persian, Tuzuki, and Turki which were
in huge demand by the Mughals due to their political and military
consumptions. Francisco Pelsaert describes that 76% of the imperial
horses were of Arabian, Persian and Turkish breed and were
imported from the countries of Middle East Asia and Central Asia.10 The
imported horses were more expensive and the imperial documents reveal
that the Mughal had spent maximum of their revenue share on the purchase of
quality horses.
From the period of 16th
to the end of 17th century the Mughals played a very critical role
in maintaining and continuing the regular import of horses for the
imperial services. In order to keep control over the horse trade the
Mughals even established friendly relations with the neighbouring
countries and provided protection to merchants by constructing proper road11
and caravansarais.12 They also controlled the banditry by
appointing regional influential element into Mughal aristocracy and
constructing fortified posts to guard the route. The Mughals even granted
advantages and subsidies to local tribal people for protecting the long
distance trade in the north-western frontier areas. The Mughals attempted
to link the trade politics of the frontier and inter-regional areas with
the centre. They controlled the long-distance trade routes and made them
safe by engaging the local populace in imperial service. The consistently
moving and shifting Mughal court and army through the embracing large
medieval capitals of Lahore, Delhi and Agra rooted their power deeply at inter
regional level and granted security to trading activities.13 Mughal
officials exercised the much deeper control over commerce and production
(agricultural and industrial) to regulate and collect the revenues. It
worked in the favour of the Mughal state and strengthened the imperial
treasury. The protection and security of overland trade routes also
helped in the expansion of the Mughal boundaries in dual way; first they
provided protection and security to the trading activities which
generated extra revenue for the state; on the other hand, it increased the Mughal‟s
conquest and expansion through constant and regular supplying of the food
and fodder during the war time.14 Abul Fazl tells that the
merchants brought the horses to the Mughal court from various countries of
Arab, Iran, Turan, Turkey, Turkestan, Badakhshan, Shirwan, Qirghiz, and
other part of the Central Asia through the overland routes via Kabul.15
The good bahri horses were also imported via sea-routes to the
Mughal ports of Surat, Cambay, Kutch, Thatta, Lahori Bandar, Broach, Hugli and
Sonargoan.16
2. LAND-ROUTES FOR HORSE TRADING IN INDIA
The overland-route of the horses moved along the following regions of Mughal suba Kabul, Qandhar, Multan, and Thatta. The borders of suba Kabul overlapped with the Uzbek‟s territories in north, while the south-western part of suba Kabul, western part of Qandahar, Multan and Thatta bordered with the political boundaries of the Safavids.17 Kabul and Qandhar were the major entrepots on overland trade route for the commodities imported from the Empire of Uzbeks and Safavids. The overland caravan trade routes from Kabul were diverted into two separate directions. One went to the territories of the Uzbeks via the Hindu Kush passes to Balkh, Bukhara, Samarkand and Khiva. Consequently, another went to Qandahar in India and Herat in the territories of the Safavids. The Punjab and Sindh border of suba Multan and Thatta was directly connected to Iran via the overland route from Qandahar. The Mughal entrepot of Qandahar was connected to the Safavid cities of Herat, Kirman, Farrah, Isfahan, Shiraz, Bandar Abbas and Bushira through trade routes. The overland trade route from Qandahar was connected to Kabul, Peshawar, Atak (Attok), Amritsar, Lahore and Kashmir in north and northern east direction. While on the other hand it was connected to Shikarpur, Dera Gazni Khan, Thatta, Multan, Bahawalpur, Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Jaipur and Jodhpur in south and southern-east direction. Travernier says in his travels about the overland trade route from Agra to Qandahar that “there were two routes to reach Qandahar via Kabul through crossing the Khyber pass or via Multan crossing the Gomal, Sanghar and Sarwand passes”.18 The Multan route was shorter than the Lahore-Kabul Qandahar route by 10 days but the caravan merchants scarcely ever took Multan-Qandahar route.
Because it was almost a desert
country and the caravan had to move 3 or 4 days without water.19 Most
of the overland trade in-between Mughal and Safavid territories were
channelized through the Multan Qandahar route via crossing the Bolan Pass in
south and Sanghar and Gomal passes in north.
The overland routes of
Bukhara-Kabul-Lahore (via crossing Khyber pass), Qandahar-Kabul-Lahore
(via crossing Khyber pass), Qandahar-Multan (via crossing Sanghar, Sarwand and
Gomal passes) and Qandahar-Shikarpur (via crossing the Bolan Pass) were
the main caravan overland routes through which the horses were imported
to India from the territories of Uzbeks and Safavids. Lahore, Peshawar,
Multan, Kabul, Qandahar, Shikarpur, Atak (Attok) and Amritsar were the major
entrepots on these land routes.20 On the Indian side it
connected to the inter-regional markets, cities, animal fair and qasbas
via the Grand Trunk Roads constructed by Sher Shah Suri. The Grand Trunk
Road connected the Ganga-Yamuna doab regions from Sonargaon on the edge
of Bay of Bengal to Central and Western Asia through Peshawar, Lahore,
Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Benares and Dhaka. In south ward direction the city of
Agra was further connected to Burhanpur, on the borders of the Deccan,
while in the south-west direction it was connected to Jodhpur and Chittor,
which were further connected or linked to Lahore and Multan through the
roads.21 This trade route network was the route
above which horses were imported into India from the countries of Iran, Turan
and Central Asia.
The environment of
Central and Middle-East Asia was favourable for breeding of all kind of
horses. Especially the Arabian, Persian, Turki and Tuzuki horses were
produced for trading purposes. Due to their strength and stamina, the
horses mainly of the Arabian, Persian, Tuzuki, and Turki breeds were
greater in demand among the people of the Mughal court. They were recruited
mainly for the royal services, and military necessities. The types of
horses which were imported to India were mainly Bahri (the Arabian and
Persian horses) which were brought to India via sea (Bahr) routes and the
other are Turki and Tuzuki horses which were brought through the land routes.
The horses of Turki and Tuzuki breeds were brought to Hindustan via the
long distance caravan trade routes of north western frontiers after crossing
the Khyber, Sarwand, Sanghar, Gomal and Bolan passes. Mostly the Central
Asian horses were brought by the Luharnis and Afghani merchants who use to
travel along with caravans of Powindah trading nomads.22
Babur has narrated about
the trading of horses in his auto-biography Babur-nama. He notes that
about 7,000 to 10,000 Turki horses were annually taken to Kabul for their
sale in the Indian markets.23 It was further sent to the
Indian inter-regional markets and animal fairs by the horse trader and
local merchants. The detail given by Babur indicates that there was a
huge demand of the horses in northern Indian markets. Francois Bernier
notes that about 25,000 horses were annually brought to India from Uzbek‟s
territory and the Arabian and Persian horses were brought to India by overland
from Iran through Qandhar route and the Bahri horses were also imported
to India from the countries of Iran and Africa via sea-routes.24 The
estimated number of imported horses highlighted by Francois Bernier shows
that the breeding of horses in India was not sufficient to fulfill the military
demand of the Mughals. He further asserts that during the 17th century
the Mughals were the biggest consumer of the foreign horses and were much
dependent on the imports rather than the utilization of indigenous
horses. During the 17th century, Kabul was the main entrepot for the horse
traders. The horses were first brought here from the counties of Iran,
Arab and Uzbech. After entering the Mughal‟s entrepot of Kabul they
further went into different direction to reach varied Indian markets, capitals,
cities and animal fairs. Jean-Baptiste Travernier has also explained
about the importance of Kabul as the main entreport for the imported
horses and in support of his analysis he figured out that about 60,000
horses were brought annually by the Uzbech merchant to Kabul and they
moved to different directions for their selling in the Indian
markets.25 The Italian traveller Niccolo Manucci who visited India
during 17th century also noted the importation of the foreign horses and
importance of the major Mughal entrepots. He asserts that most of the
horses used by the Mughal came from the regions of Balkh, Bukhara and
Kabul.26 He has estimated that
more than 100,000 horses were imported annually and out of them the best
12,000 horses were directly chosen by the Mughal officers for the
Emperor‟s stables.27 Due
to its courage and strength, the Turki horses were the most preferred one for
their recruitment in the Mughal cavalry.28 The import of the horses
played a significant role during the Mughal period. It fulfilled the dual
aim of the Mughal Empire. On the one hand it maintained the regular
supply of the horses to the Mughal cavalry and on the other hand it created an
extra source of income for the Mughal Empire in form of „duty-charges‟29 imposed on horses while
their trading in India.
After reaching the major
entrepots of Kabul, Lahore, Peshawar, Multan, Kabul, Qandahar, Shikarpur,
Atak (Attok) and Amritsar, the horse merchants further moved towards the major
animal fairs, markets and capital centres of northern and southern part
of India via inter and intra land routes. The capital centres of the
Mughal court, Delhi, Agra and Lahore were the favourite destinations for
the horse merchants and dealers. At the capital centres the merchants
sold their horses directly to the Mughal rulers, courtiers and nobles.
They also sold it through auctions at the regional centres, animal fairs
and local market under the supervision and care of local subedar and kotwals.
The Bahri horses, especially the Arabian and Persian horses were popular
for their beauty, strength, stamina and power. These horses were reserved
only for the usage of court people. These horses were costlier than the
other Central Asian Horses. Other than the Bahri horses, the Tuzuki, Turki,
Qandhari and kabuli horses were more popular among the Indian population
due to their strength, stamina and comparatively lower prices.30
3. KABUL A MAJOR ENTERPOTS
Through the overland
route of Samarkand-Bukhara-Kabul-Lahore the Tuzuki and Turki horses were
imported from the territory of Uzbek to India. The demands of these horses were
higher amongst the Indian population due to its strength, stamina and
comparatively lower prices. At the same time the horses were also
imported from the territories of Safavids to Mughal India via Herat-Kabul-Lahore
and Isfahan-Kirman-Qandahar-Kabul-Lahore overland caravan routes.
Simultaneously, mainly the Arabian and Persian horses from the country of
Arab and Iran, and Turki horses from the countries of Central Asia were
being imported to India via these routes.
Kabul emerged as an
important intersection for these routes. Various trading land routes met at
Kabul and from here they were led into the inter-regional trading
centres. This made Kabul an important commercial centre. Abul Fazl writes
that there were two gates to Hindustan i.e. Kabul and Qandahar. The
commercial significance of Kabul made it much wanted by the Mughals. This was
due to the strategic location of Kabul that whosoever controlled it, was
also enabled to regulate trade routes from Central Asia, Qandahar and
Iran from where the horses were imported into India.31 Throughout the Mughal period the suba of Kabul remained very
important part for the Mughal Empire. Abul Fazl notes that the suba of
Kabul was comprised of Peshawar, Kashmir, Pakli, Bimbar, Swat, Bajaur,
Kandhar and Zubistan.32 The
Mughals controlled this entire area as this was the best way to maintain
regular supply of horses and other trade items.
Akbar and other Mughal
Emperors tried to consolidate these routes to increase the constant and
regular supply of horses. For this they took various steps for the security of
merchants. Politically the trade-routes on the north-western border of
Mughal India also worked as a check posts for the Mughals. So, they
ensured to protect the Mughal Empire from the possible foreign attacks
through appointment of military bureaucratic officials and further
controlling trading activities on the north
western borders through them.
During initial phase of
the establishment of the Mughal Empire, the north-western boundaries were
constantly under disturbance due to the political rebellions of adjoining
Empires (the Safavids and the Uzbeks) and tribal revolts of Afghans. All
these disturbances hampered the political and commercial interest of the
Mughals. Akbar made efforts to establish his political contact and to control
over the regional rebellions. Initially, he established his capital at
Lahore to influence and control local polity for their submission under
the Mughal aristocracy. Simultaneously, the Mughal bureaucracy deeply
penetrated the Mughal military power into the inter-regional areas of
north-western boundaries by challenging, suppressing and controlling the
power of local rebellious groups and insurgency.33 At the same time
the Mughals also implemented numerous efforts to improve the trans-regional
trade and to facilitate India‟s commercial relations with the countries
of Iran (Safavids) and Turan (Uzbeks).
Akbar strategically
occupied the suba of Kabul, Qandahar and Multan. He constructed the great
forts at cities of Multan, Lahore and Attock for surveillance over the
political and economic activities of the north-western frontiers. He
linked the overland trade route from Multan-Lahore-Attock to the newly
constructed Grand Trunk Raod. He established numerous smaller forts, called
thana and financed the construction of various caravanserais to improve
the caravan traffic throughout the north
western frontiers. He
appointed rahdars to patrol the routes and ensure the safety of the
caravan travellers, merchants and their commodities. He also followed the
nasihat-namas of his ancestors that the facilities provided to trading
communities, merchants and caravan would legitimise his power, and it
would also help to generate a major portion of annual revenue for the
state.
The land routes of India
and Central Asia were connected through the major openings of Khyber Pass
and Bolan Pass. Lahore, Multan, Kabul and Qandahar were the major entrepots on
the overland routes, through which the merchandise and horses were
imported and then exported into inter-regional part of Middle-East Asia,
Central Asia and India. The Mughal emperor Akbar realised the commercial
importance of these entrepots and established a firm control on north-western
frontier by annexation of Kabul. He also shifted his capital to Lahore
and remained there for thirteen years from 1585- 1598.34 He
successfully asserted the imperial power over the entire north-western
frontiers from Lahore by subduing Yusufzai tribal confederation in the
valley of Swat and Bajaur.35 This further facilitated a
continuous and perennial inflow of horses and other commodities into India
through overland routes from the Empire of Safavids, Uzbeks and
Ottomans.
There was a constant
tribal disturbance during the initial period of Akbar‟s reign. He regularly
faced trouble from the turbulent Afghan tribes namely Afridis and
Urakzais, who were living around the area of the Khyber Pass. The Khyber
Pass was a major opening into India via Afghanistan connected by the long
distance caravan trade-route.36 The constant disturbances and loots
by these Afghani tribes hampered the trading activities between India and
the countries of the Central Asia. Therefore, Akbar tried to subdue these
turbulent tribesmen by a strict blockade. And finally in 1588, he succeeded in
his efforts and an agreement was reached with the Afridis and Urakzais
tribes, who agreed to keep the Khyber Pass open, peaceful and
uninterrupted instead of subsidies and imperial services.37 Further,
he constructed and broaden the roads to improve the passage accessible
for the wheeled carts through the Khyber Pass.38 He also
constructed the fortified posts and appointed the „offices‟ of muqaddams
and rahdars (guards) for guarding the overland trade routes.39
Regarding the construction of the broad roads through the Pass,
Akbar instructed his chief engineer Qasim Khan to construct the passage
for frequent vehicular movements. Akbar was so impressed by Qasim Khan‟s
effort that he appointed him the governor of suba Kabul.40
Akbar‟s policy to
establish complete control on Kabul was strategically motivated to improve
the overland trade link between India, Iran, Turan and other part of
Central Asia. All the overland routes were running though the entrepots
of Kabul. The Mughal Emperor had realised that the control on Kabul was
essential for its commercial importance and continuous horse supply in favour
of Mughal Empire. As Babur has mentioned in his autobiography that about
10 to 20 thousand Indian merchants had travelled annually in caravan
along with the trading items to Kabul, there they meet the caravans from
„Kashghar, Ferghana, Turkistan, Samarqand, Bukhara, Balkh, Hisar and
Badakhshan‟.41 Kabul
was a frontier market and it worked as the „centre for the exchange of trade
commodities‟ among the Indian and Central Asian merchant communities;
horse was one of these commodities; holding the significant value. The
Mughal control over Kabul, maintained the continuous supply of the Turki,
Tuzuki, Qadahari, Kabuli, Arabian and Persian horses to the Mughal
army.
All the overland routes
from India to Kabul, Iran and Turan were running/passing through the
Afghan or Baluchi tribal territories. Ensuring the safe passage through
these regions was the main aim of the Mughal trade policy. For the safety
and security of the trade routes, Akbar constructed various
caravansarais, roads, and bridges which improved the frequency and speed of
wheeled vehicle and accelerated the swift movement of trading activities.
He also constructed the forts, appointed guards, rahdars on the routes to
provide safety and security to the merchants and their commodities from
the Afghan attackers. He ordered the Mughal army to suppress all the
„unruly‟ elements on the Qandahar and Lahore route. In some cases he
negotiated with the „pastoral Afghan tribes‟ by granting economic
incentives and administrative posts to them and in lieu demanded protection of
the caravan traffic. Abul Fazl says that the efforts of Akbar resulted in
the establishment of peaceful environment all over the north-western
frontier areas. By providing the security, Akbar improved and accelerated
the bilateral caravan traffic coming in and going out of India via Kabul
and Qandahar route and restored the confidence of the merchants. This
ensured a regular supply of the horses and other commodities for the
Mughal army and Indian population. The safety and security provided to the
trading activities increased the commercial interest of the business communities,
courtiers, nobles and gentries, and substantially benefited the Mughal
state through the collection of revenues levied in form of duty
charges.
The guarantee provided
for the security of lives and goods by Emperor Akbar helped in the
development of overland trade in-between the Safavids, Uzbeks and Mughals. It
also inter-linked the Indian communities and culture to the countries of
Iran, Turan, Russia via the inter-exchange of the community, goods, ideas
and population through the caravan trading routes. Apart from trade, it
also helped in cementing and benefiting the polity and economy of Mughal
rule in India, the Safavid rule in Iran and the Uzbek rule in
Turan.
4. HORSE TRADE THROUGH SEA ROUTES
Along with the
land-route the horse-trade was also supplemented through the sea-routes. The
trade of horses was done via the sea routes since the early medieval
times.42 Mainly the Arabian and Persian horses were imported
via sea-routes from Arab, Iran and north-eastern part of Africa. These
horses were considered to be the best quality. They were known for
their beauty, sharp features, firm strength, powerful stamina and
pleasing colours. They were very popular and their demand was very high
among the royal families and gentry classes. These horses were always
associated with the interest of court and courtiers for its military
importance. The port of Thatta in suba Thatta, Lahori Bandar on Indus
basin, Kutch, Cambay and Surat of Gujarat province and Tanda, Bada, Sripur
and Sonargaon of Bengal province were the major sea ports of Mughal
India.43The Mughal ports were connected to the port of Muscat,
Hormuz, Siraf, Basra, and Bandar Abbas of Persian Gulf. Especially from
the port of Basra, Muscat and Hormuz the best quality of Arabian and Persian
horses were imported to the Mughal ports and to the ports of Goa and
Malabar44 Coast. They were then transferred into the
inter-regional markets, animal fairs and capital-centres by local merchants via
the regional overland trade routes.
The Mughal ports that
catered to the horse trade had a very sophisticated administration. The
elaborate arrangements and huge investment made by the Mughal state
authenticated the significance of horse trade in the Empire. The Mughal
ports were the main „centre of commercial and financial exchanges‟. Every
trading port was under the supervision of a separate mutasaddi
(collector, governor), who supervised and regulated the mercantile
commercial activities and was also responsible to report back to the
Mughal court about the various activities of the ports via news letters.
45 The mutasaddi had the
legitimate authority to collect and impose custom duties on the imported
commodities. It was within his jurisdiction to resolve all the disputes
regarding the trading activities as per the imperial orders. He also
established the friendly and diplomatic relations with the administrator
of other ports for the regular and continuous supply of imported commodities
into the territories of the Mughal state. The Mughal ruler ruled over the
port areas efficiently and controlled the mercantile activities through
the mutasaddis. On the eve of coronation, nearly all the Mughal Emperors
received numerous horses and other gifts sent by the Safavids and other Sultans
via the sea routes. 46 And under the supervision and guidance of the
respective mutasaddi these gifts were delivered from the ports to the
Mughal court. The mutasaddi also maintained recording of political
negotiations between the Mughal emperor and the Sultans of neighbouring
countries. The mutasaddi under the Mughal system shared power and
responsibility with the Qiladar and other officials. 47 During
the Mughals, the ports were placed under the mutasaddi (governor or
administrator of the Mughal port) who exercised wide power and was
perceived as a high Mughal administrative officer of the port.48
The mutasaddis were appointed directly from the Imperial court by a sanad
(office) of the diwan-i-ala.49 The collection of custom and
checking of imported or exported goods was the central part of his duty. 50
The mutasaddi administered over the port with the help of other
subordinate officials, clerks and helpers such as shahbandar, bandardar,
qiladar, qazi, kotwal, darogha, muhtasib, waqa-i-navis, sawanih-navis,
harkara, thanadar, mushrif, tahwildar, muqim and piyadas (troopers,
helpers, porters, carters and peons) to look after general administration,
justice, law and order and defence both within and outside the port town.
All the Mughal ports were governed by similar administrative structures
and were under direct control of the Imperial court.
The port town was
divided into four distinct mahals (fiscal divisions). Each of the Mughal port
town consisted of mahal farza (concerned with sea borne trade), mahal
khushki (dealt in trade through land), mahal langer jahajat (looked after
the charges such as supervision of harbour, anchorage of ships and
anchorage fee) and mahal jihat godi or mahal marammat jahazat (looked after
ship-repairing and ship-building work-shops). The constituents of a
bigger port were different from the constituents of a smaller one. The
mechanism of administration of a bigger port was also different from the
administration of smaller port. The bigger ports were always consisted of four
distinct mahals. Each mahal had separate subordinate officials, clerks
and helpers who worked collectively under the guidance of the Mughal port
collector or governor, the mutasaddi. The bigger ports were never part of
the suba territory. The administrations were never managed by the subedar of
the concerned suba in which it was located. The bigger ports were
constituted into separate units which were the sub division of the suba and
were managed and administered by an independent authority of the mutasaddi who
was a direct appointee from the imperial court. The mutasaddis of the bigger
ports were the chief administrative officer who guided and supervised his
sub-ordinate officials to work properly.
On the other hand, the
smaller ports were placed into the dependency of the larger ports for the
administrative purposes or were combined together to form a separate unit under
the authority of an individual mutasaddi; who often single handedly
enjoyed the power of the faujdar, thanadar, bandardar, darogha and the
shahbandar of the particular port.51 The smaller ports were
generally called as bara.52 The bara was generally connected
to seas through the rivers and accessible only by the smaller boats.
Since at the smaller ports, the mutasaddi also held the office of faujdar
and thanadar, he maintained a strong military contingent and fortified
the port town for its defense. As a bandardar and darogha of the smaller
port, he also patrolled the coastal areas and kept the vigilance over the
activities which lay within his jurisdiction. And finally as the shahbandar, he
controlled the port and the custom house individually. The administrative
authority of smaller ports was also shared by the faujdari of the sarkar,
in which they existed.
The knowledge of
assessing a quality horse was one of the essential requirements or
qualifications that the state looked for in recruiting the mutasaddi.53
Beside this, as the chief controller and caretaker of the Mughal ports,
he was expected to have remarkable „skills to judge‟ the rarities, stones,
jewels, pearls and other precious and luxurious commodities
that were imported through the sea-routes. Ali Akbar, a merchant of
Isfahan was appointed as the mutasaddi of the Surat and Cambay just
because he had efficiency and skills to judge the quality of horses and
jewels.54 On behalf of the Mughal government mutasaddi was
given the right of first purchase55 and was supervised to purchase
the best horses for the Mughal cavalry directly from the horse-trader.
Annually a large number of the horses were purchased by the mutasaddi at
the Mughal ports for the royal stable. Nothing was permitted to be sold
in the port-markets without the mutasaddis‟s knowledge. The foreigners and
merchants first approached him for the permission of trading activities.
On behalf of the Mughal government the mutasaddis were advised to
purchase the commodities required for the state such as horses, corns,
grains, arms, jewels and rarities. He also acted as the “negotiator” for entire
foreign trade on behalf of the Mughal government.
The Mutasaddi was not
only concerned with horse trade. He had wider duties and responsibilities.
The wider Imperial mercantile activities and policies were executed via
him throughout the port towns. He was granted authority to „fix the prices‟
of the commodities according to their quality and value of the goods. All
the fiscal administration within the port areas was also completely under his
control.56 He supervised his subordinate officials regarding
the collection of the custom duties and independently controlled all
administrative and fiscal activities of the harbour. The commodities that
entered at the ports were further channelized within India via in-land
trade routes. But before any further movement of the commodities into the
regions of Mughal Empire, the merchants needed to pay the custom duty
levied on it in the custom house of the port town. After the payment of custom
duty a seal was fixed on the list of mercantile goods and a deed was
granted to merchant which relaxed them from the further levied duty
charges with-in countries of the Mughal Empire.
The shahbandar official
worked as the naib under the supervision of mutasaddi.57 His
responsibility was to look after the payment of custom duties and nothing
could be imported or exported without this payment. The imported goods
were checked at mahal farza and exported goods from the country were
checked at mahal-i-khushki.58 Both these two mahals were under his
direct control. He was authorised to check the goods and released them
after having been stamped with the king‟s seal and collection of custom
duties. 59 The function of the qiladar was independent from
mutasaddi and responsible for the protection of the port city. The
mushrif for mahal farza and mahal khushki, tahwildar, darogha-i-khizana
and muqim were the officials to collect the custom duties, keep treasury
and maintain the custom register in Persian and local languages. They were the
direct representative of the Mughal headquarters and worked under the
mutasaddi.
The qazi, thanadar,
kotwal and darogha looked after the law and order of the port cities. The qazi
was responsible to solve the disputes and to look after corruption, abuse
of authority and tyranny by the local officials. 60 The
thanadar was responsible to maintain military contingent to strengthen
the fortification and defend the port city from attacks. He had to keep
vigilance over the activities of the port city. He also patrolled the
coastal areas for surveillance of the illegal activities. The kotwal was
the caretaker of the city gates so that none could leave without paying the
custom and fulfilling the other formalities of the port‟s administration.
The darogha was appointed to look into the abuses in minting and other
irregularities. Significantly, he was also in-charge of purchasing the Bahri
horses for the royal stables. The amin managed the expenses. The
officials of waqai-navis, sawanih-navis, khufia-navis and harkara
(messenger) were known as the akhbar-navis and were posted by the
Imperial headquarters to obtain the news of all the activities going on at the
port cities. The office of the akhbar-navis was independent from the
mutasaddi but before sending the news to imperial court they had to show
it to the mutasaddi.61 A large number of piyadas were engaged as the
helper of the government. They were also hired by the passengers and
merchants for different jobs. They also worked as watchman, carters and
porters at the port.
To a large extent the
Mughals invested in this elaborate port administration because they wanted
to maximize profits from trade such as custom duties. These profits were
used to procure the best quality of the horses for the royal stable. The
Arabian and Persian breed which were produced in the peninsular part of
Arabia, Iran and north-eastern part of Africa were imported to India via sea
and land routes. The horses were also brought from Jedda (Jeddah).62
After reaching of the horses at the Mughal ports, it was responsibility
of the mutasaddi to purchase the good quality horse first from the
horse-merchants and send them to royal stables. The period of 16th to 18th
centuries was specifically prosperous for the horse traders. The
merchants and traders were getting the maximum profit in importing and
selling of the horses in the Indian market. It was easier and safer to import
horses via land routes but sea-routes were also preferred by the
merchants living on Indian coastal areas of Lahori Bandar, and Kutch,
Cambay and Surat of Gujarat, Malabar and Bengal. Consequently, the trading of
quality horses via sea routes was safer than the overland routes, due to its
safety from banditry, theft and disturbances caused by political revolts,
and also took lesser time than the trading via the overland routes,
simultaneously.
5. HORSE MERCHANTS AND THE MUGHAL STATE
If horse trade triggered
the Mughals to develop port cities and administration, the horse
merchants emerged as major investors in Mughal economy. The Mughals
encouraged horse-trading and invested in horse-breeding because it was
crucial for state building. The horses played an important role in Mughal
military operations and Mughal political organisation. During the medieval
period, the horses had a social and economic value and it was regarded as
a status symbol in the Mughal society. The Mughals paid great attention
to the horses due to its military, economic and political importance. The
expansion of the Mughal state depended on the cavalry unit and demanded an
increased supply of the war-horses to improve the military and political
efficiency of the Mughal army. The growth in demand for war-horses by the
Mughals triggered horse-trading and fore fronted the need to improve
horse-breeding. The Mughals took administrative steps to encourage
horse-trading in order to increase the supply of good-quality of horses.
They appointed officials to protect the long distance overland
caravan-trade-routes. Horse merchants emerged as privileged traders in the
Empire. The Mughals lured the horse-traders and merchants by granting
security, through letter of deed, relief from paying of rahdari tax and
bestowing administrative posts.
At the same time
attempts were made to facilitate horse-breeding in India so as to support
the additional supply of the horses to the Mughals and local population.
Numerous personal or institutional breeding centres and studs were
established all over the Mughal country. The primary concern of
horse-breeding projects was to achieve the high standards set by the Arabian
and Persian horses. Indian horses of similar stature were attempted to be
bred so that they could survive in Indian environment.
R.B. Azad Choudhary
Foreign breed horses
were a coveted possession for a gentleman. Thus they were in high demand.
In order to maintain the continuous supply of ideal breed horses, the
Mughal state controlled the horse trading by extending finances and protection
to the horse merchants. The Mughal state also encouraged the
cross-breeding. Akbar established a bureaucratic edifice to oversee the purity
of horse breeds, supply of the horse and to ensure their imports from the
neighbouring lands. Akbar attempted to control major horse dealers, who
sold imported horses from various parts of Iran and Central Asia to the
imperial stables at Agra. Only few trusted and privileged merchants were
allowed to trade the horses with the Mughal state. He took substantial
steps to encourage the horse-dealers to trade with the state. He ordered
for the construction of suitable place (sarais), where the horse-dealers could
stay in convenient quarters with their horses to protect them from the
adversities of seasons, robberies and insurgency. An experienced and knowledgeable
official of amin-i-karvansara was appointed to keep watch over
horse-dealer in order to regular procurement of good horses.63 He appointed clerks to keep the records on purchasing of
horses. Apart from this, experienced man was employed to determine the
prices of horses and to examine their quality as well.64 Apart from this, Akbar
also established a special department of the imperial stable and employed
the specialised officials of the Atbegi,65 Darogha,
66 Mushrif (an accountant), 67 Dida-war,
68 Akhtachis, 69 Chabuksuwar,
70 Hada, 71 Baytar
(horse-doctor), 72 Naqib, 73 Sais, 74 Nalband,
75 Zindar, 76 Abkash, 77 Farrash,
78 Sipandsoz, 79 and
Khakrub80 for caring, maintaining,
training, feeding, and healing of horses and for the maintenance of royal
stables.81The horses were categorized according to their
origin and qualities.82 In-spite of all
these control and restrictions horses were frequently sold in the markets and
fairs through open auctions.83 Thus it appears that
state monopoly over horse trade was not full proof. Horses were also
available for the Indian population, especially for the moderately rich
people.
However, there was a
constant effort by the state to ensure that the best quality of horses should
be sold only to royal stables. For this purpose they lured the horse
merchants by granting relief to them from paying rahdari tax and
port dues (the tamgha). The Mughal court encouraged the Irani and Afghani
merchants for the direct supply of the best horses to the Mughal stables and
guaranteed them the administrative posts or economic gains in return.
Many times the Mughal emperor also sent their personal representative to
Iran and Turan for purchasing and importation of the horses. Like the
Mughal Emperor Jahangir instructed his commercial agent Kamran Beg to purchase
the best quality of horse while visiting the Safavid court. At the Indian
markets, animal fairs and capital centres, the horses were freely sold by
the foreign and Indian merchants through auctions. The state‟s
officials/courtiers/nobles could also purchase horses from the open markets,
animal fairs and trading centres by participating in auctions in capacity
of individual bidder.
The Mughal state played
an important role in maintaining the regular supply of horses to the inter
regional markets and regional animal fairs. The horse traders and merchants
were directly in touch with the Mughal court through the agents. The
mansabdars and jagirdars were informed about the coming of foreign breed
horses at the regional markets, fairs, and ports centres by barids or local
spies or local kotwals, amins, daroghas, munshi, rahdars and muqaddams.
The Mugha bureaucrats influenced the horse dealers through the
administrative structure of subadar (the provincial governor), diwan
(revenue chief of the province), kotwal (local police in-charge), munshi
(clerks) and muqaddam (village revenue officers). The Mughal officials
kept vigilance over the movement of horse traders and their caravans
with-in the inter-regional commercial centres. 84 All the local officials
were instructed to inform the ruler through letters about the coming of
horse traders in their region. The kotwal was responsible for keeping the
vigilance on commercial activities of horse traders, munshi was appointed
for maintaining the records about the prices and quality of the horses and
muqaddam and rahdars was to ensure the safety and security of the traders
and their commodities from the local thieves. The kotwal also exercised
the power to regulate the selling and purchasing of the horses. The appointment
of darogha was directly done by the imperial court. He supervised the purchase
of horses for the imperial army. A person having skills and knowledge to
identify a qualitative horse was appointed as the darogha. All these
efforts of the Mughal state also generated extra revenues for the state,
which was extracted from the merchants in exchange of safe and secured
commercial activities.
The Mughal state also
tried to control the price of the horses. The state fixed the prices of the
horses as per the quality and variety of the horses. The prices varied as
per the breed and quality of the horses. The price of horses was fixed in
rupiya and muhrs.85 The
price of horses ranged from 2 rupees to 500 muhrs as per the quality of
the horses.86 The price fixing was
also an important criteria for the classification of the royal stables
that were established to maintain the Arabian, Persian, Turki, and Tuzuki
horses separately; according to their breeds. The imperial stables were
classified as stables of the Khasa (high breed) horses and Bad-Khasa (low
breed) horses. The imperial stables of Khasa horses were further divided
into six different Khasa stables and each was containing 40 horses of
Arabian, Persian and Turkish breed respectively.87 The horses costing more
than of haftad-muhri (70 muhrs) were kept in the Khasa stables. The
horses costing between dah-muhari (10 muhrs) to haftad muhri (70 muhrs) were
kept in the non-Khasa stables.88 The
non-Khasa stables were of three kinds, for instance si-aspi, bist-aspi
and dah-aspi stables which were containing 30, 20 and 10 horses
respectively.89This suggests that
prices of horses in the imperial non-Khasa stables varied normally from
10 to 70 muhrs.90 It
was also aimed to determine how many horses of the royal stables belonged
to various price categories. The price detail of the purchased horses also
leads us to understand that most of the horses used in the royal stables
were of qualitative and higher breed. Almost all of them were procured
from the neighbouring foreign countries of the Iran, Uzbek and Central Asia.
The fixation of the price of horses was also aimed to control the price
of imported horses and to revive the horse trade in favour of India by
providing assistance and encouragement to the Indian agricultural
R.B. Azad Choudhary
and industrial
productions. It was also aimed to control the out flow of Indian bullions
in-exchange of foreign breed horses.
The Mughal state had a
close contact with the merchants and their activities. Akbar and the
other Mughal Emperors leaned on merchants for assistance in the financial
affairs of the state. The Mughal chronicles Ain-i-Akbari,
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, Shahjahan-nama, Ma‟asir-i-„Alamgiri and the
contemporary foreign travelogue reflect the presence of merchants and
horse-trading communities in the Mughal court. The merchants traded in
horses and other commercial activities, but they also worked as the
representative of the Mughal state with-in and out-side India. Several kinds of
favours and facilities were bestowed upon them by the state to ensure
their uniform and continuous services. The merchants were associated
closely with affairs of Mughal court. They were proficient in Persian and
other dialects and interacted closely with the Mughal officials at local level.
This enabled them to expand their commercial activities across Mughal
India and into Central Asia. The close association of merchants with the
Mughal court encouraged „patron-client‟ relations between them, which
remarkably depended on their commercial benefits. Because the people of Mughal
court like, rulers, courtiers, princes, princesses, nobles and their
families were very ambitious about their commercial ventures. They
appreciated and encouraged the commercial activities for their own personal
financial gains as well as for firming up the state. At many level the
Mughal princes, princess and nobles were personally involved in the
commercial activities and also tried to influence the administrative
decisions of the state for their personal benefits.
Their association with
the Mughal state also guaranteed them safety and security, and also ensure
the safe passage of their goods to neighbouring counties of Iran and
Turan. It also brought foreign goods, bullions and horses to Mughal
India. The close association with the officials of the court also enabled
them to get the letter of deed of commercial and financial contracts from the
Mughal judicial authorities. Such deed documents facilitated the
establishment of trade monopolies by certain merchants. It was the close
affiliations of the Luhanis, Powindas and Afghans with the Afghan
administrators of the Mughal state which expanded their horse trading
activities. Simultaneously, merchants worked as shipping agents for
transporting the horses which were purchased by Indo Muslim and non-Muslim
merchants from Iran, Turan and Central Asia in exchange of Indian
goods.
Among the Multani and
Shikarpuri non-Muslim merchants, the Punjabi Khatri groups were visibly
the largest section who was involved in commercial and trading activities.
Their sphere of commercial activities involved the trading in-side and
outside India. They dominated in larger part of Punjab, Sindh, Iran,
Central Asia and southern part of Russia in terms of commercial activities.91They directly or indirectly influenced the commercial
relations of the Mughal state to the countries of Safavids and Uzbeks.
They worked as humble merchant-traders, bankers, goldsmiths, dealers,
shopkeepers, grain sellers and moneylenders. They dominated in Indo-Central
Asian commercial exchange,92 and played a
significant role in importion of the foreign bullion into Mughal
India.
Due to the dominant role
played in the commercial activities of the regions of Punjab and north western
India, some of the Khatri merchants became very influential. They even enjoyed
a dominant influence among the people of the Mughal court system and were
appointed as high-level Mughal officials. Todar Mal was one of the best
known Khatri officials who became diwan, the chief revenue officer under
the reign of Emperor Akbar. 93 The Mughal courtiers and
nobles opposed the appointment of Todar Mal as the diwan under the Mughal
administration. They argued that appointment of Todar Mal as diwan would
lead to their personal loss of financial and commercial gains and further
it would also shift their commercial interests in the favour of Khatri
community. They also hoped that it would harm their personal financial
affairs. They even criticised Akbar on the appointment of Todar Mal as a
revenue minister and claimed that it would also harm the financial
affairs of the Mughal state.94 Basically the critics of
Akbar aimed to pressurise him to cancel the appointment of
Tadar Mal. They hoped that this would ensure their own personal gains
associated with the trading activities. But they never succeeded in their
aim.
Through the appointment
of a Khatri Hindu Todar Mal, as the diwan of the Mughal administration,
Akbar tried to secure also the commercial and financial upper edge in the
Indo-Central Asia commercial ties. A large number of Khatri merchants/Baniyas
were scattered within the countries of Iran, Turan, Russia, Uzbek and
Central Asia and were controlling trading activities. Their loyalty was
won over with the appointment of Todar Mal. Akbar also supposed that the
affiliation of the Indo
Muslim and non-Muslim
merchant communities with the state‟s administration would generate an
extra amount of revenue that would strengthen the state‟s treasury. All these
fiscal gains would enable the Mughals to maintain a large cavalry force
by spending these revenues on purchasing the horses of the foreign and
hybrid origins. The same revenue was also invested on the building of a
strongest and unchallengeable military power, which was an essential
demand of the medieval times for the protection and expansion of Mughal political
boundaries.
Abul Fazl claims that
the presence of merchant communities in the Mughal court was prominently
visible and they were also very close to both the ruler and nobles. Akbar and
other Mughal rulers had realised the potential of merchant class and
tried to concentrate their commercial activities to strengthen the state
by firming the military structure. Therefore, it would be correct to say that
the appointment of Hindu Khatri Todar Mal, Kishan Chand and Chander Bhan
by the Mughal Emperors was certainly aimed to please the Hindu merchant
communities as well as to win their loyalty for the Mughal
state.
The Mughal state
encouraged the development of agricultural and textile production to support
the import of foreign horses in exchange of Indian goods and textile
materials. Throughout the period of the 16th and 17th century, horses
were imported from the countries of Arabia, Iran, Turan and Central Asia
to India. The nomads of Iran, Turan and Central Asia were the chief suppliers of
horses to the Mughal armies. The expenditure on the importation of horses
was counter balanced by exporting commodities which were sent to the
inter-regional markets of Central Asia. Export from India to Iran, Turan
and other part of Central Asia included commodities such as Indian cotton
cloth,95 indigo,96 silk, sugar,97 slaves,98 opium, spices (specially pepper, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, cloves,
ginger), medical drugs,99 grains and Indian
handicraft materials and textiles etc. These items were exported to the
inter-regional markets of Central Asia, Iran, Russia and Turan (Bukhara,
Samarkand, Tashkent and Khiva) via entrepots of Iran and Turan by the
Indian merchants. While in return, horses, dry and fresh fruits, musk,
wine, furs, falcons, corals and carpets were imported from the countries of
Central Asia and Middle East Asia to India. Francois Bernier noted that
horses from the Uzbeks and Persia (about 25,000 horses were annually
brought to India from Uzbek‟s territory) and fruits such as melons,
apples, pears, and grapes which had great demand at Delhi, were imported from
the countries of Samarkand, Balkh, and Persia.100 Similarly the dry fruits
such as almonds, pistachio, nuts, plums, apricots and raisins were
imported to India throughout the year and were sold at very high prices.101 Simultaneously, good
horses were also imported from the countries of the Arabia, Persia and
Ethiopia through the port of Bassora, Bandar-Abassi and Moka to India.102 Apart from the luxury
items, the foreign horses and bullion were also imported to Mughal India.
Profits made by the Indian merchants after selling the Indian commodities
in the inter-regional markets of Iran, Turan, and Central Asia, were
invested in the purchase of the Arabian, Persian, Turani, Tuzuki, and Turki
horses for the Indian markets.
Initially, during the
early phase of the 16th century, the long-distance trade was not in favour of
India due to political instability. There was also constant fear of
banditry on the north-western frontier trade routes that could lead to
heavy loss. The Mughal court was aware of it and was looking for
alternate
R.B. Azad Choudhary
options. Hence, to
control the banditry and provide safety and security on trade routes,
Akbar established the Mughal capital at Lahore and monitored the crushing
of the unruly Afghan tribal banditry in the north-western areas. While on
the other hand to make horse trade profitable for the Indian merchants
and to regulate and control the prices of horses in the Indian market, the
Mughal state also encouraged the agricultural and textile productions,
which were in demand in the inter
regional markets of
Iran, Arab, Turan and Central Asia. The Mughal state was much interested
in foreign trading activities for the financial and commercial gains. To
support the financial gains of the Mughal court, Akbar and Jahangir
themselves got involved and took part in commercial activities that
benefitted the state.
The Mughal state
welcomed the foreign traders and provided ample protection and security to
their transactions. Further a very low custom duty was also levied on the
imported and exported commodities to increase and encourage the
commercial activities of merchants. The Mughal court was aware of the
demand of important Indian export items like indigo, saltpetre, spices, opium,
sugar, woollen and silk and cotton cloths, yarns, salt, beads, borax,
turmeric, lac, sealing wax, and drugs of various kinds in the foreign
markets. The deep interest of the Mughal Emperors in commercial
activities was the main reason behind the reduction in custom duties. Regarding
the remission of toll taxes and custom duties, the especial farmans and
orders were issued by the Mughal Emperors to kotwals, amins, mutasaddis,
and jagirdars of every provinces and districts. These concession grants
on merchandise were mainly aimed for the promotion of trade.103 To make it more
profitable and convert the horse trade in favour of Mughal India, the
Mughal state took special interest for the development of indigenous
agricultural and textile industries. Akbar established silk and cotton weaving
industries at Bengal, Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur-sikri, and Gujarat, and the
workshops were established to encourage the craftsmen for increasing the
production of woven handicraft items.104 Bernier
noted that during the Mughal period, Bengal was providing the best
quality of cotton and silk products in huge quantity to the foreign
world. 105 At the same time the Mughal court also
encouraged the agricultural productions of cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane,
indigo, opium, grains, and lac etc. All these efforts were for the
development of Indian industries and to support the foreign demands.
Through all these constructive efforts the Mughal state tried to protect their
aim of financial gains and court consumption, simultaneously they also
tried to provide the commodities for both the domestic and foreign
markets.
The efforts of the
Mughals for the development of agricultural and textile industries ensured
the continuous supply of foreign horses, goods and bullions to Mughal
India. The Indian merchant communities started making huge profits in
exchange of Indian commodities (Indian goods like grains, handicrafts,
herbal plants, spices etc.). They were earning large amount of money in form
of gold and silver bullions and the same bullions were invested for
purchasing of the Arabian, Persian, Turki and Tuzuki horses for the
Indian markets. The exchange of Indian cotton, indigo, opium, sugar,
spices and other commodities for Central Asian horses became profitable for
Indian merchants. The above mentioned business activities by the Indian
merchants profited the Mughal Empire in form of imports of the bullions
and qualitative horses which helped in strengthening the Mughal economy and
its military power. While on the socio-cultural front it also influenced the
foreign people for their migration to the Mughal capitals in search of
better opportunities as merchants or as nobles in the Mughal
court.
6. CONCLUSION
The military power of
the Mughals was mainly centred on the implementation of the Middle East
Asian, Central Asian and European traditions of military technology, tactics,
and logistics that revolutionised the Mughal‟s mechanism of warfare and
strengthened their standing army of cavalry and infantry. Throughout the
Mughal period, their military organisation remained centred on the
force of heavy cavalry. Speed, strength, swift movement and faster
retreating capacity of the horse were the fundamental features for their
heavy dependence on trained cavalry. The Mughals implemented highly
successful military tradition of horseback warfare tactics adopted from the
Middle-East Asia and Central Asia.
Besides highlighting the
importance of horses in the Mughal cavalry, this study is also an effort
to characterise the social, political and cultural significance of horse
as a „gentle‟ animal. As Abul-Fazl notes in the Ain-i-Akbari, “His
Majesty is very fond of horses, because he believes them to be of great
importance in the three branches of the government, and for expeditions of
conquest, and because he sees in them a means of avoiding much
inconvenience.”106Politically, the possession of horses played
a crucial role in the establishment of hierarchies within the Mughal nobility.
It was associated to the distribution of ranks to the mansabdars.
Apart from this, it also consolidated the strength of the imperial army
and helped in the political expedition by enhancing the retreating, attacking
and withdrawing capabilities of the Mughals.
For the continuous procurement of war-horses, the Mughals were depended on horse traders of the neighbouring countries of the Central Asia and Middle East Asia. Horses were imported to India via the long-distance caravan trade-routes and sea-routes as well. Horses imported via the sea-routes were called as bahri. I have shown that the Mughal Empire encouraged various methods and established separate institutions to give momentum to the trading and commercial activities. The Mughals were well aware about the presence of corporate and merchants groups. The Mughals were supportive and helpful towards trading and mercantile activities. This study has shown that the establishment of Mughal Empire in India provided a peaceful, safe and prosperous environment for the development of trading activities with-in and out-side India. The Mughal Empire was not only an agricultural based society; it was also a corporate and mercantile based society. These corporate and mercantile groups indulged in trading activities with foreign countries in exchange of Indian agricultural and other products. The agrarian products, textile goods, medicinal herbs and spices etc. were exported to foreign countries in exchange of good horses (especially the Arabian, Persian, Mujannas, Turki, Yabus, Tazi, janglah, kabuli, qandhari etc.), precious stones and jewellery, pleasurable items, dry fruits and bullions of gold and silver. The centrality of horses for the military and administrative necessities and for the purpose of transportation and personal usage encouraged the Mughals to control and regulate the horse trade in favour of the state. Rather than explaining the Indian trading and commercial activities, I have focussed on the efforts of the Mughal state and their officials for controlling, regulating and encouraging horse trade. During the Mughal period, India was the favourite destination for the Central Asian Luhanis, Afghanisand Powindas „pastoral-nomads‟ horse trader. The good horses were imported to the Mughal court from the countries of Arab, Iran, Turan, Turkey, Turkestan, Badakhshan, Shirwan, Qirghiz, Tibet, Kashmir and other countries.107During the Mughal period, horse trade between India and the countries of the Central Asia and Middle East Asia was done through the long-distance caravantrade-routes and sea-routes as well. Kabul and Qandhar were the major entrepots on the land-routes in India. The ports of Surat, Cambay, Kutch, Thatta, Lahori Bandar and Sonargoan were the major entrepots for the bahri, the Arabian and Persian horses.
FOOT NOTES
1 R.B. Azad Choudhary,
“The Horse and the Mughal Military Culture in Transition, 1526-1795”, M.Phil.Dissertation, Department of History,
Delhi University, 2014.
2AbulFazal, Ain-i-Akbari,
ed. H. Blochmann (Calcutta: Bib. Ind., 1867-77).
3 Abul Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, pp. 241-61.
4 Jean Deloche,
Transport and Communications in India Prior to Steam Locomotion, Volume 1:
Land Transport, James Walker (trans.
from the French) (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1993), p.228.
5 Shireen Moosvi, The
Economy of the Mughal Empire, pp. 201-23. Also see Shireen Moosvi, „The
Evolution of the “Mansab” System under
Akbar Untill 1596-7‟, pp. 173-85; William Irvine, „The Army of the Indian Moghuls: Its Organization and
Administartion‟, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, (Jul., 1896), pp. 509-570. The
mansab granted to mansabdars was not hereditary. The dual ranking of zat and sawar granted to mansabdar was divided
into three categories. The first category was of those mansabdar who had sawar ranks equivalent to
their zat ranks. Under second category the mansabdars were granted to maintain sawar lesser than of
their zat ranks but not lesser than half of their zat ranks. The third and last category was of those mansabdars who
were granted to maintain the sawar lass than half of their zat ranks. According to the Ain-i-Akbari, the ranks varied
from the dahbashi (commander of 10 horses) to the dah-hazari (commander of
10,000 horses).
6 Maarten Van der Wee,
„Semi-Imperial Polity and Service Autocracy: The Mansabdars in Mughal India
(ca. 1550 to ca. 1750)‟, pp.
209-225.
7 William Irvine, The
Army of the Indian Moghuls, p. 61.
8 Ibid, p. 61.
9 Abul-Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari,
vol. I, p. 140.
10 Shireen Moosvi, The
Economy of the Mughal Empire, p. 274.
11 Abul Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, ed. H. Blochmann (Calcutta: Bib. Ind., 1867-77), I, p. 590; T.H.
Holdich, The Indian Borderland:
1800-1900 (Delhi, 1987), pp. 47-8.
12 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, pp. 140-1. Emperor Akbar paid much attention regarding
the horse-dealers. He constructed
convenient quarters where the horse-dealers could secure them and their animals
from the hardships of seasons. Also see,
Jahangir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, vol. I, pp. 7-8 (Emperor Jahangir ordered to
his official about the construction of
sara‟is, mosque and wells for the merchants, travellers and people to
secure their safety and security while
travelling); Francisco Pelsaert, Jahangir‟s India: The Remonstrantie of
Francisco Pelsaert, trans. W.H. Moreland
and P. Geyl (Cambridge, 1925), p. 50; Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, Travels in
India, vol. I, trans. V. Ball, ed.
William Crook (London, 1925), p, 77, 118; Peter Mundy, The Travels of Peter Mundy, vol. II (London, 1914), p. 78, (explains
about the Noor mahal sarai at Agra which having accommodating capacity of 3000 men and 500 horses);
Niccolao Manucci, Storia Do Mogor, vol. I, trans. William Irvine (London, 1907), pp. 68-9
13 Jos Gommans, Mughal
Warfare, pp. 100-111.
14 During the Mughal
period, the Banjaras worked as commissariat for supplying the food. Emperor
Akbar encouraged Banjaras for the
regular procurement of grains for their armies during the campaigning seasons.
He even issued several farmans for the
exemption of toll and taxes over the trading activities of Banjaras. For detail see, Fr. A. Monserrate, The Commentary
Father Monserrate, S.J. on his Journey to the Court of Akbar, translated by J.S. Hoyland & annotated by
S.N. Banerjee (London, 1922), pp. 79-80.
15 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, p. 140.
16 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari; vol. II, trans. H.S. Jarrett (Calcutta: Royal Asiatic Society of
Bengal, 1949), pp. 248, 249, 250, 338;
Jahangir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, vol. I, pp. 167, 415-6, 441. Niccolao Manucci
notes that Surat was the largest port of
the Mughal India. This was connected to different ports of the Europe, Persia,
Arabia, Mecca, Bassora, the coast of
Malabar and Masulipatnam, Bengal, Siam, Acheen, Queddah, the Maldives,
Malacca, Batavia, Manilla, China and
many other ports of the world via Arabian and Indian oceans, for detail
see, Niccolao Manucci, Storia Do Mogor,
vol. I, p. 61. For detail on the ports of Bengal see, Radhakumud Mookerji, Indian Shipping: A History of the Sea-Borne
Trade and Maritime Activity of the Indians from the Earliest Time (Calcutta:
Longmans, 1912), pp. 218-20.
17 Irfan Habib, An Atlas
of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps with Detailed Notes,
Bibliography and Index (Delhi: Oxford
University Press, 1982), p. xviii.
18 Jean-Baptiste
Travernier, Travels in India, vol. I, trans. V. Ball, ed. William Crook
(London, 1925), p. 73.
19 Ibid, p. 73.
20 Arup Banerji, Old
Routes: North Indian Nomads and Bankers in Afghan, Uzbek and Russian Lands
(New Delhi: Three Essays Collective,
2011), p. 121; Scott C. Levi, The Indian Diaspora in Central Asia and its Trade, pp. 33, 40, 111;
21 Muzaffar Alam,
„Trade, State Policy and Regional Change: Aspects of Mughal-Uzbek Commercial Relations, c. 1550-1750‟, pp. 202-227; Jos Gommans,
Mughal Warfare, p. 137.
22 Stephen Frederic
Dale, Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, p. 63.
23 Babur, Babur-Nama, p.
202.
24 Francois Bernier,
Travels in the Mogul Empire, p. 203.
25 Jean Baptiste
Tavernier, Travels in India, vol. II, trans. V. Ball, ed. W. Crooke (London,
1925), p. 63; Surendranath Sen (ed.),
Indian Travels of Thevenot and Careri (New Delhi: Published by National Archive
of India, 1949), p. 80.
26 Niccolao Manucci,
Storia Do Mogor, vol. II, p. 390.
27 Ibid, pp. 390-91.
28 Ibid. P. 391.
29 Ibid, p. 390.
30 Ibid, pp. 390-91.
31 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, p. 140.
32 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. II, trans. H. S. Jarrett, p. 349.
33 John F. Richards, The
Mughal Empire, p. 50.
34 Jos Gommans, Mughal
Warfare, p. 23; John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire, pp. 49-52. 35 Abul-Fazl, Akbar-Nama, vol. III, trans. H.
Beveridge (Delhi: Low Price Publications, 1989), p. 802; John F. Richards, The Mughal Empire, p. 50.
36 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. II, trans. H. S. Jarrett, pp. 404-5.
37 Abul-Fazl,
Akbar-Nama, vol. III, trans. H. Beveridge, p. 810.
38 Abul-Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari,
vol. II, trans. H. S. Jarrett, p. 406. Abul-Fazl notes that khaibar pass was
the connecting link between Iran and
India for the traders and merchants.
39 Abul-Fazl,
Akbar-Nama, vol. III, trans. H. Beveridge, p. 792.
40 Abdul Qadir Badauni,
Muntakhabu-t-Twarikh, vol. II, ed. Ahmad Ali and W. N. Lees (Calcutta: Bib.
Ind., 1864-69), p. 372; Cf. M. Athar
Ali, The Apparatus of Empire, p. 13.
41 Babur, Babur-Nama, p.
202.
42 Travels of
Marco-Polo, trans. and ed. Henry Yule and H. Cordier (London, 1903). Marco-Polo
(c. 1292), a 13th century traveller,
remarks that India has an age old tradition of practicing of sea trade with the
countries of Arabia, Persia and central
Asia and the greater part of the Indian revenues was expended on importing or obtaining Arabian and Persian horses from
these foreign countries. Malabar was the main centre for the importation of Arabian and Persian horses
which was further transferred into Indian fairs and market by land routes from where they were supplied to the
state.
Abul-Fazl, Ain-i-Akbari;
vol. II, trans. H.S. Jarrett, pp. 248, 249, 250, 338; Jahangir,
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, vol. I, pp. 167,
415-6, 441. Niccolao Manucci notes that Surat was the largest port of the
Mughal India. This was connected to
different ports of the Europe, Persia, Arabia, Mecca, Bassora, the coast of
Malabar and Masulipatnam, Bengal, Siam,
Acheen, Queddah, the Maldives, Malacca, Batavia, Manilla, China and many other ports of the world via Arabian and
Indian oceans, see, Niccolao Manucci, Storia Do Mogor, vol. I, p. 61. For detail on the ports of Bengal see,
Radhakumud Mookerji, Indian Shipping, pp. 218-20. Ralph Finch was the first English traveler at Bengal (1586) who
observed that Tanda was one of the busiest port from where there was “great trade and traffic of cotton and
cotton cloth” was carried to the west and east.
44 For sea-mercantile
activities, Malabar was called as the key of Hind, whose production, such as
rubies, aromatics, spices and pearls
were carried to Iraq, Khurasan, Syria, Rum and Europe.
45 Ali Muhammad Khan,
Mir‟at-i-Ahmadi (suppl.), ed. Nawab Ali (Baroda, 1930), pp. 180-81, 183-4, 194,
223; Ali Muhammad Khan, Mir‟at-i-Ahmadi,
vol. I, p. 353; Ashin Das Gupta, Indian Merchants and the Decline of Surat, p. 24; Farhat Hasan, State and
Locality in Mughal India, pp. 38-9. For more detail see Syed Ali Nadeem Rezavi, „The Mutasaddi of Surat in the
Seventeenth Century‟, Proceeding of the Indian History Congress, 44th Session,
Burdwan, 1983, pp. 214-221; Farhat Hasan, „The Mutasaddi of Surat – Evidence of
Persian Records of the 17th Century‟,
Proceeding of the Indian History Congress, 53rd Session, Warangal, 1993, pp.
276-280; Shireen Moosvi, „Mughal
Shipping at Surat in the First Half of Seventeenth Century‟, Proceeding of the
Indian History Congress, 51st Session,
Calcutta, pp. 308-320. The rank and personal status of the mutasaddi
depended upon the mansab granted by the
Imperial court. He was assumed to be a nobleman of greatest quality. The mutasaddi held the high status and rank both
as individual and official.
46 Saqi Mustaid Khan,
Ma‟asir-i-„Alamgiri, trans. Jadunath Sarkar (Calcutta, 1947), p. 20.
47 Ashin Das Gupta, Trade and Politics in 18th
Century India, Islam and the Trade of Asia, in D.S. Richards (ed.) A Colloquim (Oxford, 1970), pp.
191-192; Lakshmi Subramanian, „A Trial in Transition: Courts Merchants and Identities in Western India,
circa 1800‟, The Indian Economic and Social Science History Review, Vol. 41, No. 3 (2004), pp. 269-292.
48 The foreign traveller
Hawkins, Travernier, Thevenot and Finch has described the Mughal official
of mutasaddis as the governor and
administrator of the port areas. He was the direct appointee of the Mughal Emperor and had enjoyed the first right to
purchase.
49 Ali Mohammad Khan,
Mirat-i-Ahmadi (Suppl.), pp. 194, 222.
50 Sayed Ali Nadeem
Rezavi, „The Mutasaddi of Surat in the Seventeenth Century‟, pp. 214-222. 51
Ali Mohammad Khan, Mirat-i-Ahmadi (suppl.), pp. 193-4. For instance, the port
of Surat, Cambay and Hugli were the
larger one and it was under the administration of a separate mutasaddi. Due to
smaller in size and lesser traffics, the
ports of Cambay, Gogha and Gandhar were initially placed under the
administration of the mutasaddi of Surat.
But due to increased traffics and greater inflow of merchants, the ports of
Cambay, Gogha and Gandhar were later
separated from the port of Surat. These ports were combined together into a
separate unit under the port of Cambay
and their administration was given to the mutasaddi of Cambay. Similarly,
the port of Hugli and Qasimbazar was
under the authority of an individual mutasaddi who administered both the ports. All the Mughal ports were governed by
similar administrative structure and were under direct control of the Imperial court.
52 Ali Mohammad Khan,
Mirat-i-Ahmadi, vol. I, pp. 205, 222, 239-40.
53 Ali Mohammad Khan,
Mirat-i-Ahmadi, vol. I, p. 222; Muhammad Amin Qazwini, Padshahnama, vol. II,
p. 607.
54 Padshahnama, vol. II,
p. 607. Jahangir appointed his favorite Muqarrab Khan as the mutasaddi of
Surat because he had an expert quality
in identifying and procuring rareties and stones.
55 Ali Mohammad Khan,
Mirat-i-Ahmadi, vol. I, pp. 260-62; Sayed Ali Nadeem Rezavi, „The Mutasaddi
of Surat in the Seventeenth Century‟,
pp. 214-222.
56 Farhat Hasan, „The
Mutasaddi of Surat – Evidence of Persian Records of the 17th Century‟, pp.
276-280. 57 Ali Muhammad Khan,
Mirat-i-Ahmadi (suppl.), pp. 194, 222.
58 Ali Mohammad Khan,
Mirat-i-Ahmadi (suppl.), p. 194.
59 After the payment of
the custom duties, a receipt (dakhila-i rawai mahsul) was issued to the
merchants. It included the seals of the
mutasaddi, mushrif, tahwildar and signature of the muqim. It verified the payment
of custom duties and the merchant was
able to sell their goods in the markets of the Mughal countries. The
receipt symbolised the Mughal authority
and granted to avoid any kind of double levy.
60 Farhat Hasan, State
and Locality in Mughal India, p. 61.
61 Since the officials
of akhbar-navis was independent from the authority of the mutasaddi. On several
occasion they inform the Imperial court
about the corruption and irregularities of the mutasaddi. The continuity of a particular person as the mutasaddi of the
port city totally depended on the news report provided by the waqai of the akhbar-navis. They were even transferred
or punished for their misdeed. That‟s why the mutasaddi were always afraid of the news-reporters (waqai)
and always tried to lure them for his favour. Kartalab Khan, the mutasaddi of Surat had bribed the courier for
not to report matters to the Emperor correctly. For more detail, see Ali Muhammad Khan, Mirat-i-Ahmadi, vol-I,
Nawab Ali (ed.), p. 312.
62 Shireen Moosvi,
„Mughal Shipping at Surat in the First Half of Seventeenth Century‟, Proceeding
of the Indian History Congress, 51st
Session, Calcutta, 1990, pp. 308-320. Emperor Shahjahan sanctioned two lakhs of rupees to the mutasaddi of Cambay and Ahmedabad
to purchase the merchandise for export to Jedda and in return the merchant were advised to import
pearls, qualitative horses and other rarties.
63 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, p. 141.
64 Ibid, p. 141.
65 The Atbegi was the in
charge of all horses belonging to the imperial stables. He directed the duties
of all the officers associated to the
management of horses.
66 The Darogha was
appointed to check the quality and maintenance of horses in the royal stables.
Every royal stable had an individual
Darogha to look over the maintenance of horses.
67 The Mushrif kept the
roll of horses and look over all the expenditure associated to stable. 68 The Dida-war was the imperial inspector to
inspect horses before their mustering by the Emperor. He also determined the rank and condition of horses.
He used to work under the guidance of the Mushrif. 69 The Akhtachis was responsible to look
after the harnessing and saddling of horses.
70 The Chabuksuwar was
responsible to check the speed of horses.
71 The Hadda trained the
horses for the different purposes of cantering, trotting, galloping and
stepping. 72 The Baytar was appointed
for the healing of horses from animal-diseases.
73 The Naqib was
retained for supervision. He used to inform the condition of each stable to the
Darogha and Munshif of the imperial
stables.
74 The Sais was
responsible for the grooming of one or two horses individually.
75 The Nalband was
appointed for the horse-shoeing.
76 The Zindar was the
saddle holder.
77 The Abkash was water
carrier in the imperial stable.
78 The Farrash was
appointed for dusting of the royal stable.
79 The Sipandsoz used to
burn mustard-seed (sarso or sipand) in the stables of forty horses for the
purpose of prevention of horses against
the nazar-bad (evil eye).
80 The Khakrub was the
sweeper, who used to clean the dung of horses.
81 Abul Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, pp. 145-47.
82 Ibid, p. 243; William
Irvine, The Army of the Indian Moghuls, p. 51; J.P. Pigott, Treatise on the
Horses of India, pp. 1-46.
83 Fr. A. Monserrate,
The Commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J. on his Journey to the Court of Akbar,
p. 208; Cf., Shireen Moosavi, The
Economy of the Mughal Empire, p. 242.
84 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, p. 141.
85 Ibid, pp. 142,
86 Shireen Moosvi, The
Economy of the Mughal Empire, p. 243.
87 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, p. 141.
88 Ibid, pp. 141-42.
89 Ibid, p. 141.
90 Ibid, p. 142.
91 C.A. Bayly, Rulers,
Townsmen and Bazaars, p. 155; Arup Banerji, Old Routes, pp. 46-49. 92 Muzaffar Alam, Trade, State, and Regional
Change: Aspects of Mughal-Uzbek Commercial Relations, c. 1550-1750, pp. 202-227.
93 Abul-Fazl,
Ain-i-Akbari, vol. I, p. 377.
94 Abdul Qadir Badauni,
Muntakhabu-t Tawarikh, vol. II, trans. G. Ranking, ed. B.P. Ambashthya
(Patna: Academica Asiatica, 1973), p.
65.
95 Babur, Babur-Nama, p.
202.
96 Francisco Pelsaert,
Jahangir‟s India, pp. 10-18.
97 Babur, Babur-Nama, p.
202.
98 Ibid, p. 202.
99 Francisco Pelsaert,
Jahangir‟s India, pp. 44-46.
100 Francois Bernier,
Travels in the Mughal Empire, pp. 203-04.
101 Ibid. pp.
203-04.
102 Ibid, p. 203.
103 Before the
establishment of the Mughal state in India, the custom duties charged on the merchandise
at the ports of Gujrat was very high, it
was about 8 to 10% of the merchandise value. Mughal Emperor Jahangir reduced it to 2 to 2½ %. For more information
see, Jahangir, Tuzuk-i- Jahangiri, trans. Rogers and Beveridge, Delhi, 1968, p. 417. Similarly, in 1669,
Aurangzeb remitted all the road toll and taxes on food stuffs.
104 S.M. Edwards and
H.L.O. Garrett, Mughal Rule in India (Delhi, 1956) , p. 265.
105 Francois Bernier,
Travels in the Mughal Empire, p. 202.
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