The Rise of Sufism in the Mughal Era (16-18th Century): Unveiling Spiritual Trends

Advent of Sufism during the Mughal Period (16-18th Century)

N. Saraswathi

Dr. N. Saraswathi, Professor, DOS in History, University of Mysore.

Vali Jafari

Vali Jafari, Research Scholar, DOS in History, University of Mysore.

Abstract 

India since its beginning has been a Hindu state. Brahmans were considered belonging to the  upper caste in Hinduism and practices followed by Muslims were opposite to those of Hindus.  But after Mughal invasion, Islam was widely practiced by those who migrated into India. Hence,  the study attempted to understand the religious impact and advent of sufism during the Mughal  period. It was found that through sufism, the philosophy of mystical traditions pertaining to other  religions such as Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism were shared by Sufis amongst  the people of India which showed that the Sufis were very liberal in their thoughts and ideas. 

Introduction 

Islam when first was known in India, Hinduism was more in dernier. Hinduism by this time had  debased itself. Superstitious rituals, beliefs and sacrifices had blindfolded the Indian society and  Hinduism had declined in its form. The society saw Brahmans and caste system coming to power  and rigidity in rituals and customs was evinced. The people belonging to the lower classes were  ill-treated being called as untouchables and secluded from society. However, Hinduism and  Islam had opposite practices and Islam did not practice orthodoxy and superstition. Islam only  preached about brotherhood, equality, and oneness or unification of God. There were no such  precepts or rule in Islam during that period. It therefore, abided by a democratic organization and  a simple doctrine. 

Although the commerce by sea continued, the main route by which Islam came to India was  overland through Iran and Central Asia. During the Caliphate of Umar the land approaches to  India were explored, but Umar’s policy did not countenance expansion into India. It was under  the Umayyads that the first efforts were made to invade India. The political structure of the  country remained the same during the advent of Islam. On the other hand, it challenged the social  pattern of society. When the pattern of the society was challenged, the society reformed when  intellectuals introduced the Bhakti movement and the Sufi movement stating a secular approach  towards all religions and sects. The movements were a revolution as the reform was based on the  principle that God was supreme, all men were equal for Him and towards achieving salvation,  Bhakti or devotion to Him was the key.

Objectives : 

1. To understand the religious impact made by Persians who migrated into India during  Mughal period. 

2. To study the advent of Sufism during Mughal period. 

Sufism and Islam 

When the Muslims first came to India in the eighth century (8th) A.D., they came in as traders.  The socio-cultural environment of India fascinated the Muslims and which is why they  determined to invade India and make the place their home. The traders who came to India from  Central and West Asia carried back with them traces of Indian science and culture. As a result  they became cultural ambassadors of India by disseminating this knowledge to the Islamic world  and from there to Europe. As time passed, the immigrant Muslims interfered into the  matrimonial alliances or issues of the local people and developed a culture to live with others in  harmony. Ideas and customs were collectively and mutual exchanged and discussed which  proved to be good for the society during that period. The way of speaking, dressing, mannerism,  intellectual pursuits and customs was blended of the Hindus and Muslims and they influenced  each other effectively. Islam, religion followed by the Muslims saw a great impact on the Indian  society and culture. 

Prophet Mohammad preached Islam in the seventh century A.D. in Arabia. Prophet Mohammad  was born in AD 571 in Arabia and belonged to the Quraysh tribe. In A.D. 622, the Prophet  migrated from Mecca to Madina which marked the advent of the Hijira Era which was to be  followed by the Muslims. Quran is the message given by Allah for his devotees to follow as a  belief followed by the Muslims. This message is believed to have been revealed to Mohammad  through his lucifer (archangel) named Gabriel. The Quran has been translated into various other  languages across the world. 

 Islam comprises five fundamental principles which must be abided by those who believe in  Islam. The same are mentioned below: 

(1) Tauhid (belief in Allah) 

(2) Zakat (giving of alms) 

(3) Haj (pilgrimage to Mecca) 

(4) Namaz (prayers, five times a day) 

(5) Roza (fasting in the month of Ramzan) 

The sayings and preaching’s of Prophet Mohammad are preserved and retained in the Hadith or  Hadees which means the reports of statements or actions by Mohammed. The Caliphate was  established following the death of the Prophet. Four pious Caliphs prevail according to Islam.

Islam only preached equality among people, the existence of one God and brotherhood. The  traditional pattern of Indian society witnessed changes brought in due to the arrival of Islam.  When equality and the One God principle was preached in the society, the rise of Bhakti and the  Sufi movements introduced by great reformers and intellectuals contributed immensely towards  the development of the society and its enlightened thoughts. Equally, the Bhakti and the Sufi  movements accepted that God is supreme, all humans are equal, and devotion to God is the only  way to achieve salvation. 

Rise of Sufism 

Sufism is a term commonly used for Islamic mysticism. The word Sufism is derived from the  word ‘Suf’ which in Arabic means ‘coarse wool’. Some scholars believe that the term sufi comes  out of the Arabic word safa which means purity. The Sufis generally used to wear garments  made of Suf or coarse wool, which according to them was a legacy of the prophets, and thus  came to be known as Sufis. Most of the early Sufi saints were persons of deep devotion who  were disgusted with the vulgar display of wealth and degeneration of morals among Muslims  following the establishment of the Islamic Empire of the Umayyid Caliphate. The Sufis  propagated the gospel of humanity and stood for peace and harmony. They were characterized  by their attachment to ‘dhikr’( the practice of repeating the name of God) and asceticism.

To enter the way of Sufism, the seeker begins by finding a teacher who has received the  authorization to teach or ‘ijazah’, in an unbroken succession of saints leading back to the Prophet  Mohammad. These teachers renounced the world and devoted themselves to the service of God.  The Sufis were broadly divided into two groups, - 

a) Ba-shara or those who followed the Islamic Law or Shariat; 

b) Be-shara, or those who were not bound by Islamic Law. 

In their spiritual quest they were not alone but shared the philosophy of mystical traditions found  in other religions such as Christianity, Judaism, Hinduism and Buddhism. The tenth century  witnessed a new phase in the history of Islam marked by the formation of orthodox schools  based on the Quran and the Hadis, on the one hand and the rise to prominence of the Sufi mystic  orders. 

Pertaining to the religious outlook, the Sufis were very liberal in their thoughts and ideas. The  unity of all religions was believed to be important for the integration of the society. Spirituality  was preached through music by Sufis and doctrines that professed union with God was expressed  in terms of verses of music. Iran was the place where Sufism originated but a convivial  atmosphere was only found in India where Sufism got its ground for its ornamentation under the  Turkish rule. Hindus were mainly attracted to Islam on the whole and Sufis as the Sufis possessed a sense of tolerance, piety, sympathy, concept of equality and friendly attitude towards  the lower classes. This proved that the Sufis believed in respecting and paying reverence to all  human beings. 

In India, the Chishti silsilah established by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti was essentially Indian. He  came to India after the battle of Tarain in the year 1192 and settled in Ajmer, because it was a  small town and was away from the centre of political activity in Delhi. His main object was to  help Muslims to lead a life of devotion to God. The Chishti influence in Delhi was firmly  established by Qutbuddin Bakhtyar Kaki. Sufi saints such as Moinuddin Chisti, Nizamuddin  Auliya, Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar were the pioneer sufïs who are still loved, respected and  honoured in India. 

Chishti Sufis had some practices of their own which were not followed particularly by other Sufi  orders. They never tried to consort with the kings and royal officers. Secondly they did not earn  their livelihood. Futuh or wilful or unasked charity which was given to them was the only source  of their livelihood. The Chishti Sufis liked Shama or devotional music. Their hospice or khanqua  was open to the common man, poor and rich, who could sit and dine with the Sufis. The Sufis  believed in the philosophy of 'Hamma az Usht'. It means that everything is from Him. He means  the Almighty God. They advised devotees not to accumulate money beyond their daily needs.  Honesty and fair dealing in business was emphasized. The values of forbearance, avoiding anger  or causing hurt to others and a policy of love and tolerance were stressed. 

The sufis were also impacted by the Buddhist monks and Christians with respect to building their  dargahs and khanqahs. Khanqah are the institutions (abode of Sufis) built by the Sufis in  northern part of India which spread Islam to the countryside. Takias (resting places of Muslim  saints) and Mazars (tombs) equally became the centers for the propagation, preaching and  discussion of Islamic ideas. Both the aristocrats and the common people patronized the idea of  Islam and Sufism. Some of the major Sufi traditions in India were the Qadri, Suhrawardi,  Naqshbandi, Madari, Firdausi, Shattari and a few minor traditions. 

The Qadri tradition of Sufism was founded by Abdul Qadir Gilani who lived in Baghdad, the  capital of present Iraq. It was brought to India by a Sufi, Abdul Karim Jilji, in 1388. The real  founder of this tradition of Sufism in India was Syed Muhammad Ghaus Al Qadri, who had  settled in Uch, from where this order spread to other places in India including Bihar and Bengal.  These two places in eastern India are very famous particularly for the Qadri tradition. 

The founder of the Suhrawardi tradition in India was Bahauddin Zakariya. Hamid-ud-din Nagori,  Jalal-ud-din Tabreji and some others were the other prominent Sufis of the Suhrawardi tradition.  They maintained independent views regarding secular and religious problems in the society.  They maintained very good relations with the kings and officials. They believed that this world  and the attributes of this world, whatever had been created by God on this earth, are for the use of the human being. The Suhrawardis opposed some of the Hindu practices adopted by the  Chishtis, such as bowing before the sheikh, presenting water to visitors and tonsuring the heads  of new entrants to the mystic order. They were also keen on conversions. 

The Shattari order was popular among the common people. The term 'Shattari' has come from  the Arabic word 'Shattr’ means to move very quickly. This Sufi order was founded by Shah  Abdulla Shattari. The Shattari order believed in practices which were very common to the Hindu  practices in India. The practices of the Hindu yogis were very similar to the Shattari practices. 

The practices of the Madari Sufi order resembled those of the Hindu yogis. They used to rub  ashes on their body. They used to perform yoga and used to wear black turbans and have black  flags in their hands. They did not observe fast and they seldom offered prayers or namaz. Badi ud-din Madar in Kalpi was the exponent of this Madari Sufi order in India. 

The Naqshbandi Sufi order was founded by Khwaja Maha-ud-din Bukhari. This Sufi tradition  became popular in India particularly during the Mughal period. Khwaja Mohammad Baqi Billa  was the person who brought this Sufi order to India during the Mughal Emperor Akbar's reign.  Khwaja Baqi Billa died in the year 1603. The other leading Sufis of this order were Sheikh  Abdul Haq Dehlavi and Khwaja Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi, both being very famous. 

So far as this Naqshbandi Sufi order is concerned it was very different from the other Sufi  silsilahs in India. They were different in the sense that they stressed on the orthodox  interpretation and its application so far as the canons or shariat of Islam was concerned. The  Naqshbandis propounded a new philosophy that was known as Wahadatul Shahood which means  the experience of Divine God in the heart on the basis of ecstasy. 

Many Sufis had accompanied Muslim invaders during their conquests in India which brought  them into contact with Hindu saints. In India, the Sufi movement began as a response to the  increasing materialism pervading the Muslim society under the growing influence of the Muslim  rulers all over the country. The Sufis stressed on harmony in the society and also harped on the  unity of human beings. The Sufis were organized by or followed religious orders or silsilahs.  These silsilahs were given the name after their founders such as Suhrawardi, Chishti,  Naqshbandis and Qadi (as discussed above). There were fourteen silsilahs in the sixteenth  century India according to Abul Fazl who authored Akbar’s Ain-i-Akbari. Each order prescribed  by the silsilahs had their own khanqahs, which were shelters for the Sufi saints which developed  later as a centre of learning. 

Nagaur, Ajmer, and Ajodhan or Pak Pattan (which is located in present day Pakistan) came to be  known as important centers of Sufism. The tradition of piri-muridi, (teacher and the disciple) was  also started and was being passionately followed. Therefore the link between the teacher or ‘pir’,  and his disciples or ‘murids’, was a vital part of the Sufi system. The sufis listened to poetry and music (sama) which were originally written in Persian in order to attain a state of mystical  ecstasy, but it was later translated to Hindustani or Hindawi. The self-surrender unto God and  unity of God was preached in the same way as the votaries of the Nïrgun Bhakti movement  preached to the fellow Indians. Irrespective of language, as Music has the power to attract  anybody, sufi music attracted Hindus, following which the Hindus started visiting the dargahs  which were constructed by the Muslims. Sufism had such a great impact on the Hindus that the  preaching of Sufis became visible and prevalent in the form of siddhas and yogic postures in the  Indian society. 

With the foundation of the Mughal rule the Sufis and their tradition entered into a new phase, it  was found that during the Sultanate period most of the kings were to a great extent orthodox. But  the Sufis during the Sultanate period represented the liberal face of Islam. They tried to  harmonize the society and a harmonious trend was established by them. Hence it was seen that  on one hand the rulers were orthodox and on the other hand the Sufis were liberal. When the  Mughal period came this set-up was changed, particularly from the time of Akbar. Akbar was the  ruler who tried to ensure that the Mughal rule could be permanently established in India, for  which reason he adopted a liberal religious policy. Akbar abolished the jizya and pilgrimage  taxes that were imposed on the Hindus. However he came up against the opposition of the  Naqshbandi tradition of the Sufis. The Naqshbandi tradition believed that the attitude and  measures adopted by Akbar for ensuring harmony in society was against the Shariat of Islam.  They adopted an orthodox outlook regarding the Muslim society and the Shariat. In such  conditions Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi did not have good relations with Akbar the Great. 

Moreover when Akbar declared himself Imam-e-Adil and assumed the right of the interpretation  of the Islamic law, the Naqshbandis were enraged with him. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi tried to  revive the orthodox or conservative aspect of Islam and its Shariat. 

After Akbar when Jahangir came to power Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi began to influence Jahangir  so that he could not follow the liberal policies of Akbar. Noor Jahan, who was a Persian and the  wife of Jahangir, was a Shia. Her brother Asaf Khan and others were very close to Jahangir. In  such condition Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi thought that under the influence of Asaf Khan and other  Shias, Jahangir would follow the liberal policies of Akbar. Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi wrote a book  named Rakde Rawafiz, which was against the Shia practices. This together with the fact that  Sirhindi refused to bow before the Emperor led to his arrest and imprisonment by Jahangir.  When he was released a year later however Jahangir presented him with one thousand tanka and  a robe of honor, thereby diffusing the tensions that had developed between the state and Sufism. 

The Sufis undoubtedly played an important role in harmonizing the Indian society and the two  major religions, Islam and Hinduism, as well as Islam and Sikhism. Mian Mir during the period  of Akbar and Jahangir was a leading Sufi of the Qadri tradition who resided in Multan influenced  Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru, with his philosophy and that of Baba Farid. When the foundation of the Golden Temple was being laid Guru Arjan Dev invited Mian Mir who was  then very old to perform the function. It is indeed significant that the foundation of the Golden  Temple in Amritsar was laid down by the Islamic Sufi Mian Mir. The vani or the sayings of  Mian Mir and Baba Farid are part of the Guru Granth Sahib as well. 

The two other Sufis who were very significant were Prince Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah  Jahan and Mirza Mazhar Jan-e-Jana. Dara Shikoh was a great Sufi who had learnt Sanskrit and  the Vedas and Upanishads also. He translated the Upanishads into Persian and he gave it the title  Sevre Akbar the Great Sacred. Then with some Sanskrit scholars of Benaras, Dara Shikoh  translated the Vedas and he named it Majma-ul-Bahrain, in which he made a comparative study  of the Quran as well as the Vedas. It was through Majma-ul-Bahrain that the European scholars  came to know about the Indian Vedas. 

Another book written by Dara Shikoh was Sakina-tul- Aulia, in which he has written the  biographies of 107 Sufis. This philosophy of Dara Shikoh was not liked by Aurangzeb as well as  the orthodox ulemas who issued the fatwah that Dara Shikoh should be killed and ultimately he  was killed. But the ethos, the concept, the philosophy, which was given by Dara Shikoh on the  deep study of the Vedas as well as the Quran, and their comparative study, continued in India.  And Mirza Mazhar Jan-e-Jana, who lived during the time of Aurangzeb, continued the  philosophy of Dara Shikoh and he also stressed that Hindus were not kafirs, they were ahl-e kitab, or men of books and that the Vedas were the books of God and they were given by God.  and in this way the Sufi tradition continued in India. 

Most of the Sufi silsilahs advocated toleration between peoples of different faiths and opened the  doors of their khanqas to all irrespective of their religious beliefs. Their attitude of benevolence  and their musical assemblies created an atmosphere of interaction between the Hindus and  Muslims and even served to mitigate the harsher aspects of Islamic rule. But it is imperative that  the Sufi saints who wandered and stayed in different parts of India were all not very liberal in  their thoughts but also some of them were quite orthodox. Under the influence of Sufism, it is  true that philosophy was denounced and it was simultaneously equated with rationalism;  however, miracle mongering and suspicion about science, its concepts and scientists were also  developed by Sufis. 

Conclusion 

With the foundation of the Mughal rule the Sufis and their tradition entered into a new phase, it  was found that during the Sultanate period most of the kings were to a great extent orthodox. But  the Sufis during the Sultanate period represented the liberal face of Islam. They tried to  harmonize the society and a harmonious trend was established by them. Hence it was seen that