Gautam Jayasurya, 2nd Year B.A (Hons) LLB, Rajiv Gandhi National University of Law, Patiala, Punjab.
Mughal Period: a cardinal period Advent of
the Mughal Period
The Mughal Period on a clearer basis extended from 1526-1540 and 1555-1712 (due to the interregnum of Sher Shah Suri 1540-1555). The Mughal Empire was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most of the India subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th centuries. The Mughal Emperors were of Turko-Mongol descent, but developed a highly sophisticated mixed Persian culture. At the height of its power, around 1700, it controlled most of the Subcontinent-extending from present-day Bangladesh to Kashmir and part of what is now Afghanistan.To be mentioned in a more precised manner,the rule of Mughal Empire stretched from Mughal period, an exemplary period in its own particular ways.This period is sometimes considered to be the blue print of modern India. In the fifteenth century when the political condition of India had deteriorated and there was no powerful kingdom in the northern India.The last ruling dynasty was of the Lodhis with a weekend position. Such a situation invited invasions from the northwestern borders of India. Babur’s invasion and subsiquent were indeed its result. Babur invaded India in 1526, i.e. Battle of Panipat, in which Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and thus established his empire over India. Expansion and annexation of India by Mughals and diplomatic absorption of the Rajputs, economic policies, religious policies and socio economic policies, the sovereign, his power and duties are worth mentioning.Punjab to Bengal including Jaunpur and Bihar in the 16 century.Included Kabul in the north-west and Kashmir in the north, Sindh, Multan and Gujrat in the west, Malwa and Benar in the south and Orrissa and Bengal in the east at the time of Akbar’s death.It stretched from Kabul, Kandhar and Peshawar in the north and Kaveri in the south by the end of seventeenth century.1 Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 130 million, over a territory of over 4 million km² (1.5 million mi²).
The foundation for the Baburids empire (Mughal Period) was
established around the early 1500s by the Timurid prince Babur, when he
took control of the Doab and eastern regions of Khorasan controlling the fertile Sindh region and the
lower valley of the Indus River. In 1526, when Babur defeated the last of
the Delhi
Sultans, Ibrahim Shah Lodhi, at the First Battle of Panipat, Babur was invited
to invade the Delhi Sultanate by Rana Sanga, who thought that after
defeating Ibrahim Lodhi, Babur would go back and he would become the
Ruler of Delhi. To secure his newly founded kingdom, Babur then had to
face the Rajput confederacy led
by Rana Sanga of Chittor, at the battle of Kanwah,
1527. These
early military successes of the Turks, achieved by an army much smaller
than its opponents, have been attributed to their cohesion,
mobility.
Every ruler contributed in his own particular way, which hold a
great importance in adding glitters to the shining empire. Beginning
from the very first ruler everyone did his best or tried do his
best.
Babur
Babur (February 14, 1483 to December 30, 1530) was the founder of
Mughal Empire.He was also called Zahir-uddin-mohammad and was closely
related to Changez khan and Timur.He was a Muslim conquerer from central
Asia who, finally after following a series of
setbacks, succeded in laying the basis and then later on establishing
Mughal dynasty in India. He was a direct descendent of Timur through his
father and was a descendent of Chingis khan through his mother.2 He
identified his lineage as Timurid while his culture and training everything
were deeply steeped into Persian culture. He inherited the small state of
Farghana in 1494 A.D. In order to expand his empire and to strengthen his
position in central Asia, he invaded India five times. In the fifth
expedition he defeated Ibrahim Lodhi, at Panipat in 1526 A.D. At this
time the Afghans and the Rajputs shared the political power of north
India. Babur's conquest of northern India was incomplete till he defeated
Rana Sanga, the king of Mewar and the greatest Rajput king of the period.
Consequently a decisive battle, i.e. Battle of Kanwah took place on 16,
March 1527 and Rana Sanga was defeated. The defeat of Rana Sanga shook
the power of the Rajputs. In 1528 A.D. Babur attacked Chanderi which was
held by Medini Rai and captured it. In 1529 A.D. Babur marched against
Mahmud Lodhi a brother of Ibrahim Lodhi and the battle of Ghagra followed
which resulted in the defeat of the Lodhis.
Babur had now no military problems to face as the conquest of north
India was complete. Babur found the Afghan theory of kingship, according
to which the king was the chief among the nobles, unsuitable and was
likely to face troubles which the country had to face during the time of
the Lodhis.The title of Sultan did not find favour with Babur.He had
already that of Mirza and declared himself Padshah or the Emperor,
showing that he was an authority, superior to that enjoyed by the rulers
of Sultanate period. He believed that monarch derived his authority from
God. In short Babur stood for divine right monarchy, which met the needs of
the time. He decided to make this country his home therefore in view of
this decision, he occupied himself during the intervals of leisure
to construct for himself a palace at Agra and to raise buildings at other
places.His policy was to appoint powerful military governors to various
provinces who can make peace and order in their respective
jurisdictions.He wanted to conciliate the people as far as possible.While
on his death bed he nominated Humayun his successor and entrusted his
other family members to take his care, he died on 26
December,1530.
Akbar
Akbar was born to Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum on October 15,
1542 and was the grandson of Babur. As Humayun was trying to re-establish
his kingdom, Akbar had to face various problems which in turn made him
much stronger.As was with usual princes, Akbar had numerous nurses, most
important among them all was Jija Anaga3 whose husband
Shams-ud-din, who had saved Humayun from drowning after the battle of
Kanauj in 1540.
Humayun died as a result of a fall from the staircase of his
library on 27 January, 1556.As soon as the news reached Bairam Khan he
took immediate steps to enthrone Akbar and proclaimed him the Emperor on
February 14, 1556. The time of his becoming member Akbar was just of 13
years age and was guided by Biram Khan who was also known as the guardian
of Akbar. By the time, Akbar became independent the work of
administration remained in the hands of Bairam Khan who discharged the
duties satisfactorily. Akbar was confronted by the still existing Afghan
threat, the threat of Hemu who possessed a large army, the rising power
of the Rajputs and the independent territories. Besides this the condition
of the citizens was worse.
The regency of Bairam Khan, which had been responsible for the
firm re establishment of the Mughal rule in India, lasted for four years and
later the guardian was dismissed from power and was directed by Akbar to
proceed on a pilgrimage to Mecca. In 1556 Akbar met Hemu on the battle
field of Panipat. With the defeat of Hemu, the Mughals had established
their sway over Delhi and Agra.4 Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation
with the Rajputs and won their support by establishing matrimonial
alliances. In 1562 he married the eldest daughter of Raja Bihal mal of
Jaipur. He maintained alliances with Bihar and Jaisalmer. In 1584 his son
Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das.When Akbar reached
the age of 20 he experienced in himself a remarkable spiritual change
which produced a wholesome result of his attitude towards his people. The
next concrete decision of this policy came to light in 1563, when orders
were issued for the abolition of the pilgrims’ tax throughout his
kingdom.that year while encamped at Mathura, it was brought to his notice
that his government levied a tax on the pilgrims who visited Hindu places
of pilgrimage. He felt that it was contrary to the will of God that
anybody should be asked to pay tax to worship Him,although his form of
worship might be ‘erroneous’. Early next year in 1564, Akbar abolished
throughout his dominions the most hated tax called Jazia which
all non-muslims were required to pay. This tax had imposed a great disability on
Hindus and constantly reminded them that they were treated as inferior
people. Akbar, who had decided to remove all invidious distinctions
between various sections of his subjects, caused a substantial loss of
his treasury by this reform. But he won the goodwill of a vast majority
of the inhabitants of the country.
Din-e-ilahi
Dissatisfied with the tradition and authority, Akbar prescribed
human reason as the sole basis of the religion and extended complete
religious toleration to every creed in the empire. He was greived to see
narrow-minded religious zealots preaching against one another. In his
anxiety to do away with the religious discord in the empire, he made an
attempt to bring about a synthesis of all various religions known to him
and styled it Tavahid-i-ilahi or Divine Monotheism. It was not
a religion but a socio-religious order or brotherhood, designed to cement
diverse communities in the land. It was based on the principal of
universal toleration (sulah-i-kul) and comprised good point of all
religions investigated by the emperor himself. It believed in the unity
of God. Akbar highest political object was the fusion of Hinduism and
Islam and the establishment of the cultural as well as the political
unity in the empire. The innovation was the outcome of his policy of
universal tolerism and a brilliant testimony to his national idealism. Akbar,
no doubt, fancied himself to be the religious as well as the temporal
leader of his people. His conception of kingship was patriarchal in
character and he considered himself to be the father of his subjects.
Naturally, therefore, he arrogated to himself the position of the
religious as well as the temporal leader of the Indian people. He was the
undoubtedly the inquirer of truth.
Administration
Akbar believed in hierarchial form of government. He believed that
King was the ultimate head and ministers were maintained at other lower
levels. Like his religious policy Akbar’s theory of kingship was the
result of gradual evolution. Akbar believed that king must be absolutely
tolerant to every creed and must establish universal peace in his
dominion. As per his views, the king must be the best well-wisher and
guardian of his subjects.he must be just, impartial and benevolent. As
the head of State and government Akbar worked hard to discharge his
manifold duties. The central government of Akbar, after it was well
organised, consisted of four departments, each presided over by a
minister. The ministers were:
1. Prime Minister (vakil)
2. Finance Minister (diwan
or wazir)
3. Pay-Master General (Mir
Bakhshi)
4. Chief Sadr (Sadr-us-Sadur)5
The Mughal ministers did not constitute a
cabinet in the modern sense of the term. They were secretariats rather
than ministers, as the initiation of the policy was in the hands of the
emperor and not in those of ministers. He divided his empire into well
defined provinces and established uniform administration in them. In each
province there was a governor styled as Sipah Salar, a Diwan, a Bakhshi, a
Qazi, a Kotwal, a Sadr, a Mir bahr and a Waqaya navis. Each of these
provincial officers had an official establishment of his own which
consisited of clerks, accoutants and peons. Further the administration of
the empire was divided into various levels like the didtrict
administration, the parganas, municipal administration, village communities.
Generally the officers were divided into two broad divisions, namely, (1)
those who served the emperor at court, (2) the others who held definite
appointments whether at central level or in the provinces. The names of both
kinds are registered and the officers who were required to attend at the
court were expected to keep themselves readiness to carry out any orders
that the king might give. They had their own troops which were kept ready
for service. The officers were either paid by grant of jagirs or in cash
from the royal treasury. Akbar preffered the latter mode of the payment; but as
payment by grant of jagirs had come down from the past, he could not
abolish the system altogether. The salaries and allowances of the
officers were enormous. In Akbar’s time the payment was made all round
the year, i.e. for whole of the twelve months of the year. The Mughal
public service, though was well-organised, it suffered from certain
drawbacks.
(1). There were no
regular rules of appointments, promotion or dismissal.
(2).Fixity of tenure was
not guaranteed, this led to intrigues and sometimes neglect of
duties.
(3).The cost of
maintaining the fixed quota of troops and auxiliaries were very
heavy.
(4).The average officer
spent large sums on luxuries, banquets and presents and exploied the poor
people.
In spite of all these
drawbacks the Mughal imperial service under Akbar was one of the most
highly organized, talented, loyal and efficient services than known to
the world. It carried out the imperial policy expeditiously. His always
proceeding nature and down to earth attitude made Akbar’s reign most
successful and brilliant Akbar’s idealism, natural gifts, force of
character and concrete achievements entitle him to a high a place among
the rulers of mankind. His lofty patriotism and intellectual superiority
alone easily raised him head and shoulders above all other kings of
medeival India. He was not a mere idealist or a visionary, he was first
and foremost a realist who faced reality and tried to place his feet upon
the bed-rock of a situation instead of soaring high in the air.6 This was the basic
reason why he excelled and had great acheivements to his credit. The rare
combination of idealism and realism entitled Akbar to the first place among
the most important and successful monarchs, both Hindus and Muslims this
country had ever had.
Akbar’s age was an age
of great rulers. His contemporaries were Elizabeth of England, Henry IV
of France and Abbas the great of Persia. He was unquestionably superior
to them all in more respects than one. The historian Smith rightly says:
“He was a born king of men, with a rightful claim to rank as one of the
greatest sovereigns known to history.”
The Central
Structure of the Mughal Empire:
The object of this study
is to give an outline of the organization of the administrative machinery
of the central government of the mughal empire under Akbar,and trace its
practical working under his two immediate successors who faithfully
followed his policy,carried out into practise the principles set by him,
and gave his institutions a permanent name and existence.The subject when
viewed from a geographical point of view is limited to northern India,
when viewed from a historical point of view deals with the period of time
falling between the year 1560, when Akbar to rule, and the year 1657,
when Shah Jahan ceased to rule and topically it deals with the basic
administrative structure of the soceity.
As described in the
study done on Akbar, we have already discussed the importance of the role
of king in the administrative work of the empire. Overview says:
The transaction of state
business by the king, according to a definite and set programme, was
decidedly a contribution made by Akbar to the administrative machinery of
the monarchy. The rules and regulations lay down by Akbar, followed by
Jahangir and developed by Shah Jahan, show the attitude of these monarchs
towards their responsibilities and position in the state. The lessons
learnt, and the experience gained in the three centuries of Muslim rule
in the country, together with the shock which the Mughal Empire itself
received under Humayun, were fully understood by Akbar and his immidiate
successors. In spite of all rules and regulations established by them,
they never forgot the dangers with which the Empire was beset, nor did
they underrate the disadvantage under which they ruled. In the absence of
any constitutional body or any permanent authority in the state to
control and supervise the administrative machinery, the only guarantee to
avert, check, or overcome the dangers to the Empire and to ensura the
smooth working of the administration, was the vigilance of the ruling
monarch.they realized it, regulated it and worked it out. The three
general meetings of the king had a profound influence upon the general
administration of the Empire. The regularity with which the routine
established by Akbar was followed by himself and the importance which it
gained under him, was a sufficient guarantee of its continuance under his
immidiate successors who had personally witnessed it. On the whole, it
shows the spirit with which they started and aims and objectives they had
placed before themselves. It also shows that they fully understood that
the success of administration under monarchy depends upon the manner in
which a king spends his time. The realization of this important fact
forms the key-note to the measurs of success which the three great
Mughals achieved. They performed their duty cheerfully and themselves set
examples to others on whom ultimately th ecarrying out of their desires
and duties depended.
Jahangir
Jahangir had the
disadvantage of coming after Akbar and is eclipsed by the glitter of his
father’s name and fame. He also lacked the service of a chronicler who
could record his activities and his devotion to work. However as the
glimpses gained through his own memoirs reveal that as far as the first
fifteen years of his reign are concerned, he devoted his time and
energies to state business, which he performed with zeal and pleasure.
The last six years of his reign were of troubles and anxieties, political
and personal. His day by day falling health was also one of the reasons
behind it.
Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan had to pay
the price of his father’s slackness and was the target of all the
political moves and intrigues which centered round Jahangir in his last
days. The difficulties which Shah Jahan experienced in securing the
throne, the condition of the Empire he witnessed during those days and
the inherent weakness of the system which it brought to the front made
him more cautious and more careful in the discharge of his duties than
his father. Professor Sarkar’s writing about his daily life, says, “The
royal throne was not exactly a bed of roses even in those days………It was a
strenous life that Shah Jahan led and he gave peace, prosperity and contentment
to his people.
The
Ministers
State like an absolute
monarchy, like all other forms of government does, requires the aid of
several brains. Even the most gifted men like Julius Ceaser and Napoleon
could not handle the problems of a state single-handed. In northern
India, monarchs like Balban and Ala-ud-din Khilji who believed in centralizing
all power in one hand and
controlled the administrative machinery personally, had to feel the need
of ministers and show respect to them. Under every form of despotism, the
existence of a body of ministers or a council of advisers becomes
undispensable.
The Vazir:
Under the Muslim
monarchies, the term used for the council or body of ministers is vizarat.7 The Muslim jurists
mention two kinds of vizarat :(a) the unlimited vizarat and
(b) the limited vizarat .the vazir with unlimited powers
commonly called Grand Vazir,was the major-domo and alter-ego of
the caliph. He wielded all the sovereign power and was only required to
inform his sovereign of all he had done. The powers of the limited vazir
were not so extensive. He had no initiative powers. He simply carries out
the orders of the sovereign. He was the immidiery between the ruler and
the people. But his presence near the Caliph and all orders passing
through his hands and reciving an official character through his zeal or
sigantture, gave him sufficient importance in the state. The powers of
the grand wazir carried with them the vast responsibities of the office
which made his position extremely delicate. He was required to possess
all the arts of an accomplished courtier, besides technical knowledge of
the various branches of the administration. The stability of the kingdom
is attributed to the ruler and its disintegration to the Vazir. Hence a
Vazir should be wise like a philospher, simple like a villager, cautious
in spending like a trader and brave like a warrior. Al-mavardi was the
first Muslim jurist who expressed the view that non-Muslims were eligible
for the post of Vazir of the second class.
Vizarat in the Delhi
Sultanate:
The above sketch of the
duties and powers of the duties and powers of the Vazir mentioned above
shows the importance of the institution under the Muslim monarchies. The
Vizarat under the Delhi Sultanate passed through many different stages.
The conquest of Hindustan for the second time, and his death after a few
months after his victory, left the country and the ruling dynasty in a very
uncertain condition. It was only the personality of Bairam khan which
established peace in the country and saved the dynasty, but from the
administrative point of view Bairam Khan’s five year regime presents a
unique example in the history of India. He was virtually the Grand Vazir.
Bairam khan set aside his rivals by capital punishments and imprisonment
and simply informed the king of what he had done. He sat in the diwan-e-
khas twice a week and put military and civil affairs anew into proper
order.
The Vakil and his
position:
Immediately after the
suspension of powers of Bairam Khan,political and financials were placed
under the charge of Shahib-ud-din (Governor of delhi) and afterwards
Maham Anga was joined with him. Shams-ud-din Atka khan was given Bairam
Khan’s standard.
Munim khan who arrived
from Kabul was the title of Khan-Khanan and the office of vikalat was
also entrusted with him. Munim held the highest position in the kingdom
and could not be ignored. Atka Khan, Muzzaffar, Khan-i-azam and Asaf Khan
succeeded Munim Khan as the Vakil. In the eighth year of the reign
Muzzaffar Khan was appointed as the Diwan and thus the revenue and
financial matters were seperated from the office of the Vakil and a
further blow was given to his powes and prestige. All in all in a reign of
ninety seven (97) years there were ten Vakils and they covered about
thirty nine of its period.8
|
During the reign of |
Name |
Year of the
reign |
Period |
|
Akbar |
Shahab-ud-din
& Bahadur khan |
Sixth |
1 year |
|
Atka khan |
Seventh |
1 year |
|
|
Munim khan |
Seventh- twelth |
5 years |
|
|
Muzzaffar khan |
Twentysecond twenty fourth |
2 years |
|
|
Khan khanan
& Mirza khan |
Thirty fourth |
A few months |
|
|
Khan-I –Azam
& Mirza Aziz koka |
Fourty-fifty |
10 years |
|
|
Jahangir |
Amir-ul-umara
& Sharif khan |
First |
1 yr |
|
Asaf khan Qazvini
Second-fourth |
3 yrs |
||
|
Asif khan Abdul
Hasan |
Twenty first |
1 yr |
|
|
Shah Jahan |
” |
First-fifteenth |
14 yrs. |
Mir Baksh:
The Mir Baksh of the
Mughal empir enjoyed all the powers of the diwan-e- arz as the head of
the department,but his influence extended beyond his own department and
his nearness to the king added on to his prestige. The recriutment of the service on military lines, the
dependence of the rank of an officer on the number of soldiers required
to be maintained by him and the payment of his salary on the presentation
of the stipulated number of horsemen, at fixed intervals, naturally led
to the division of the powers of the Vazir and the chief Bakshi became an
equal share of his responsibilities and prestige.
Mir Saman:
The department not only
purchased and stored all kinds of articles, but it was the greatest
manufacturing industry in the country for weapons of war and articles of
luxury. Though owned and managed by the state, the department was run purely
on industrial basis. This term Mir Saman is often interchangebly used
with Khan Saman. It was proved that under Akbar this officer did not hold
the rank and position which he did under his two successors and the
entire work assocated with his office had not developed upon him in that
reign. The department consisted of the Mir Saman as the chief executive
officer responsible for the successful and general supervision of the
department.
The Sadr:
The term is loosely used
concerning the Delhi Sultanate. The office appears under different names
as shaikh-ul-islam (the chief of Islam), qazi-ul-quzat (the chief of
qazis) and Sadr (the chief). As per Muslim jurists the sadr is the connecting
link between the king and the public. The king should consult him every
possible kind of respect and consult him in matters of law and religion.
Duties of the sadr consist of things like he should keep a close watch
over the ulemas of the state, inquires into the conditions and capacities
as teachers and instructors and exercise full control over the teaching
of all sorts of knowledge in the state. He should encourage and properly
reward honest and capable teachers. His position in the state determined
the scope of his activities and outlined his duties, which were
three:
1. As the most
distinguished scholar of Islam and the religious head, he exercised a
sort of censorship over the education, ideas and the morals of the people. It
was in his capacity that he exercised an immense influence and his hand
reached every individual of the state.
2. Islamic law being the
basis of the law of the state, he became the head of the judicial
department and as such responsible for the appointments of the qazis and
the muftis in the state and the proper discharge of their duties. This enhanced
his power and gave him adefinite place in the administration of the
state.
3. As the chief
connecting link between the people and the king, by virtue of his
position as the chief of Islam, he recommended to the king the cases of the
ulema and the scholars devoted to the service of the religion for
suitable stipends to relieve them from the anxiety of earning their
livelihood and brought to the king’s notice the cases for state
help.
Most of Akbar’s Sadrs
had no mansab and were given lands only.They were honoured and reputed
for scholarships, honesty, integrity and selflessness.
Ministry in a
glimpse
Vazir: Came next to the
king, all powers were concentrated into his hands
Vikalat: Later eclipsed
by the Diwans, an office of rank and dignity but with no
power
The Diwan: The minister
in charge of Revenue and Finance.
The Bakshi: The minister
in charge of Military Department.
The Mir Saman: The
minister in charge of karkhanas or the industries. The
Sadr: The minister in charge of the Ecclesiastical and Judicial Department.
Judicial
System
Mughal period began from
the victory of Babur in 1526 over the last Lodhi Sultan of Delhi. His
son, Humayun, though he lost his kingdom to Sher Shah in 1540, regained
it after defeating the descendents of Sher Shah in 1555. The Mughal
period then continued from 1555 to 1857. During the Mughal period, the
Emperor was considered the “fountain of Justice”. The emperor created a
separate department of Justice (Mahukma- e-Adalat)9 to regulate and see that
justice was administerd properly.on the basis of administrative
divisions, at the official headquarters in each Province, Districts,
Parganah, and Village, separate courts were established. A systematic
gradation of courts, with well-defined powers of the presiding Judges,
existed all over the Empire.
The Imperial
capital
At Delhi, which was the
capital of Mughal Emperors in India, three important courts were established.
The Emperor’ court
presided over by the Emperor, was the highest court of the Empire. The
court has jurisdiction to hear original civil and criminal cases. As
a court of the first instance generally the Emperor was assisted by
a Darogha-e Adalat a Mufti and Mir
Adl. In criminal cases the Mohtasib-e-Mumalik or the
chief Mohtasi, like the Attorney General of India today,
also assisted the Emperor.
The Chief Court of the
Empire was the second important court at Delhi, the set of the capital.It
was presded of over by the Chief Justice (Qazi-ul-Qazat). The
court had the power to try original, civil and criminal cases, to hear
appeals from the Provincial Courts. In administering justice, the chief
justice was assisted by one or two Qazis of great eminence, who were
attached to his court as Puisne judges.
The Chief Justice was
appointed by the Emperor. He was considered the next imporatnce person,
after the Emperor, holding office in the judiciary.
The Chief Revenue Court
was the third important court established at Delhi. It was the highest
court of Appeal to decide revenue cases. The court was presided over by
the Diwan-e-Ala.
Apart from the above
stated three important courts, there were also two lower courts at Delhi
to decide local cases. The Court of Qazi of Delhi, who enjoyed
the status of chief Qazi of a Province, decided local civil and criminal
cases. An appeal was allowed to the court of Chief Justice. The court
of Qazi-e-Askar was specically constituted to decide
cases of the military area in the capital. The Court moved from place to
place with the troops.
Provinces
In each Province (Subah)
ther were three courts, namely the
Districts
The Chief, civil and
criminal court of the district-it was presided over by the qazi-e sarkar
Faujdari Adalat: Dealt
with criminal cases regarding riots & state sequirity.
Kotwali: Decided cases
similar to those under modern police acts and had appeallate
jurisdiction, presided by kotwal-e-shahar.
Amalguzari Kacherhi:
Decided all Revenue cases, Amalguzar presided over this
court.
Paraganah:
In each Paraganah there
were three courts namely:
Adalat-e-Paraganah:presided
over by Qazi-e-Paraganah.The court had jurisdiction
over all civil and criminal cases arising within its original jurisdiction.four
officers attached to it were –Mufti, Mohtasib-e-Paraganah,
Darogha-e-Adalat and Vakil-e Shara.10
Villages: The Village
was has been the smallest administrative unit. From ancient times the
Village council, i.e. Panchayats were authorised to administer
justice in all petty and civil and criminal matters.
Summary and
Conclusion
The merits of a system
are based judged by the measure of success achieved by it in the
attainment of the object for which it has been established, and judged by
this standard ther can be no better proof of the soundness of Akbar’s
system and the efficiency of its internal working than that during the period
of ninety-seven years.(1560-1657)
1. Only one minister
Shah Mansur was charged with high treason under Akbar.
2. There were only three
cases of corruption in the Ministerial rank, two of which belong to the
reign of Akbar.
3. The officers from the
highest rank of clerkship rose to the highest office of a minister by
virtue of their capacity and loyalty without any influence or
recommendation and without any distinction of class, creed and
caste.
4. The ministers enjoyed
perfect security during their term of office& good behaviour and were
not exposed to the dangers which generally arise under
monarchies.
5. Entire system moved
and every part of it worked, in a regular order.from the clerk to the
minister of a department, everyone knew his duties and his
position.
6. Kings attitude
toswards his state and the conception of his duties towards his subjects
were worth mentioning.
7. The devotion of the
King to his mutifarious duties and his attention to every phase of state
activity guaranteed the continuity of the system once established.
Defects:
1. Over-centralization
and its dependence over the Monarch. The king had always to act as a
guardian of the weak both against his own official agents and local
chiefs.the country had not known any other form, the Mughals themselves
were familiar with no other nor could they guarantee a succession of
monarchs like Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan forever.
2. Policy of Conquest,
which must also be attributed to Akbar, to whose originality and natural
gifts the empireowed all its achievements. Had Akbar limited his efforts
towars the realization of his ambition of his ambitio becoming chakravartin, his
achievements would have been still greater and the Empire in all
probility would have continued longer.
3. Another main cause must be ascribed to its economic bankruptcy. Under the successsors of Akbar the economic condition of the people deteriorated further and further.
Notes
1 Edgar Thorpe Showick Thorpe,the general knowledge manual,Pearsons Education Publication,07.
2 A.L. Shrivasatava,history of India,shivlal agarwal & company pub,pg 288
3 A. l. shrivastava,history of India,shivlal agarwal & company,pg 411
4 A.l.shrivastava,history of india,shivlal agarwal & company,pg-414
5 Ibn hasan,the central structure of the mughal empire,radha publications,New Delhi,pg-111
6 A.l. shrivastava,history of India,shivlal agarwal & company publishers.,pg-520
7 Ibn hasan,the central struture of the mughal empire,radha pulications,pg-110
8 Ibn hasan,the central structure of the mughal empire,radha publication,pg-140
9 V.D. kulshreshtha,Landmarks in indian legal and constitutional history,eastern book company,2006,lucknow.
10 V.D.kulshreshtha,landmarks in indian legal and constitutional history,eastern book company,2006,lucknow