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TOLERANCE AND CO-EXISTENCE IN MUSLIM INDIA: THE RELIGIOUS POLICY OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

By:  DR. HANEEF C. MUHAMMAD* *Necmettin Erbakan University,  Konya, Turkey 

Email: cmhfvesala@gmail.com 

Key Words:  

Cultural Co-existence, The  Mughal Empire, Religious Policy,  Islam in India.

Abstract: 

The Indian peninsula is known for its multi-religious and  multicultural identity. India, the birthplace of Hinduism and  Indian culture, has accepted many local and foreign religions  throughout History. India's meeting with Islam began with Arab  merchants at the time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and was  completed with the military expeditions of Persian and Turkish  rulers. The most important Muslim Empire in Indian history is the  Mughal Empire, founded by Babur, the grandson of Timur. It  ruled over many territories in the Indian sub-continent for three  centuries. Recognizing Islam as a state religion, this empire has  treated indigenous Hindus and the adherents of other religions that  constitute the majority of the Indian population with extraordinary  tolerance. Generally, these Muslim rulers allowed their citizens to  live according to the religions they wanted, even though they  destroyed some Hindu temples as a symbol of the authority  change. These Muslim rulers even employed them in the  governing body of the state. The most prominent example of this  can be seen in the period of Akbar Shah of the Mughal Empire. 

This study examined how the Mughal Empire, which ruled for  centuries in the Indian Peninsula, treated the non-Muslim subjects,  especially the Hindus and how did they introduce the culture of  co-existence, giving more importance for the period of Akbar, the  great ruler of the Mughal Empire. Similarly, I will try to compare  the millet system of the Ottoman Empire with those of Mughal’s  religious policy using the comparative method. 

1. Introduction  

The Indian subcontinent, from the very beginning, is the cradle of human civilization with its  diverse cultures and religions. It is the birthplace of great religions like Hinduism, Buddhism,  Sikhism, and Jainism. Along with these indigenous religions, India hosted all Semitic  religions, Bahaism, and Zoroastrianism. According to the 2011 census report, Hinduism  constitutes the majority by 80%, while Islam, the second largest religion accounts for just  14%, Christianity for 2% and other religions for 4% of the total population. (Wikipedia ,  2018) 

Hinduism and Islam, with their all sects and divisions, are the two major religions in India.  These two religions have both bitter and nice experiences and both cohesion and conflict  throughout history. The Mughal period (1526-1850) that longs over three centuries was the  golden age of peaceful religions and cultural cohesion of Hinduism and Islam. Excepting  mostly politically motivated some minor strifes and intolerances, India witnessed for the  cultural pollination and peaceful co-existence in this period. This unity and peaceful  coexistence are the prerequisites for the long endurance of an empire, where dozens of  different religions and cultures prevalent. Most of the Mughal rulers were cautious about this  fact and they tried to design a new religious policy to keep their sovereignty intact.  

In this study, I tried to examine the religious policies of the Mughal Empire and their role in  the forming of a wonderful state with all cultural and religious diversity. I analyzed several  authentic historical works for this study using historical and analytical methods. These kinds  of studies are very important because the histories are being manipulated by some historians  with vested interests. They are trying to portray the Islamic rulers, especially Mughal rulers as  cruel and the destroyers of the Hindu temples, with the aim of the consolidation of Hindu vote  banks and the prosecution of Indian Muslims.  

2. Islam in India  

There are many different factors that led to the advent and spread of Islam in India like  organized raids of Muslim rulers, massive proselytizing efforts of Sufi Scholars and migration  of Muslims into the Indian sub-continent. (Islam Ansiklopedisi, 1998, p. 18/85) Islam arrived  in the Indian subcontinent in different regions in different stages. At first, Muslims arrived in  the coastal areas of the southern part of India, as traders and missionaries. These trade  relations of Arabs with Indian coastal areas can be traced back even before the advent of  Prophet Muhammed (PBUH). Secondly, in AD 712, Muhammed Kasim, the Arab conqueror of the Umayyad dynasty, started the wave of military expansions into the Indian regions.  Finally, the organized raids and conquests of later Afghan, Turk, and Persian Muslim rulers  paved the way for Islam in the entire Indian sub-continent. (AHMED, 1995, p. 600) Another important factor that led to the Islamisation of India was the proselytizing efforts of  Islamic scholars and Sufi saints with the support of Muslim rulers of different times and  regions. The presence of Sufi saints and scholars can be seen even before the military  operations of Muslim rulers. (SAHA, 2007, p. 30) The important figure in this regard was  Muinuddin Chishti of Ajmer, whose relentless efforts caused to spread Islam into common  people. The tablig activities of Sufi saints had a great effort in the heart of the common  people, who were fed up with the discrimination and subjugation they faced under the cast  system. Similarly, Sufi saints always tried to disseminate the ideas of love and tolerance.  They emphasized more on the mercy and love of God rather than his wrath and punishment.  The doors of their dargah have been always open for all, irrespective of colour, religion, race,  and caste. Other factors like the humility of Sufi saints towards their disciples and their  apathetic attitudes towards the material world, played an important role in the effective  proselytizing of Islam in India. Although the military expansion of Muslim rulers played a  major role in the Islamisation of the sub-continent, we can hardly find the forced conversion  attempts by these rulers. (Singh, 2016) 

Similarly, the places where Muslim powers ruled for centuries, especially capital cities like  Delhi and Agra had a very nominal Muslim presence that constitutes only 10-15% of the total  population. As famous historian Thomas Arnold said Islam succeeded the great and  everlasting tablig victories in the periods and places where the political power of Muslims  was so feeble. (SAHA, 2007, p. 39) 

Apart from being a military commander, Muhammad bin Kasim was also a devout and pious  Muslim. His benevolent conducts and humanitarian activities towards the people of the  conquered land, granting them the religious freedom, and considering them as dhimmis in  return to the minor Jizya, resulted in the flocking of common people into Islam willingly. 

(Idris El HAREIR, 2011, p. 607) 

The decline of the great Abbasid Caliphate resulted in many important historical events like  Mongolian invasions, arising of many independent dynasties in Persia, Afghanistan, and  Turkistan. (Encyclopedia Britannica , 1965, p. 12/140) Mahmood Gaznevi of Ghaznavid  dynasty was another important ruler who started the massive conquest of Indian sub-continent  as he raided around 17 times. (Islam Ansiklopedisi, 1998, p. 18/85) He reached the new  milestones as he conquered territories up to Somanath at the south and up to Bundelkhand at east. (Islam Ansiklopedisi , 2001, p. 5/521) The conquest of Mahmood Gaznevi was followed  by Muhammad of Ghor and later the rulers of Delhi sultanates. Around 33 sultans from 5  dynasties; 1) Slave dynasty (1206-90); The Khaljis (1290-1320); 3) Tughlaqs (1320-1413);  Sayyid dynasty (1414-51) and Lodis (1451-1526) ruled Delhi until the establishment of  Mughal empire in 1526. (Encyclopedia Britannica , 1965, p. 12/140) 

3. Mughal Empire and Religious Policy  

Generally, like many other Muslim empires like Umayyad, Abbasid and Ottoman, Mughal  Empire, founded by Babur, the descendant of Timur, also accepted Islam as the official  religion. They constructed many mosques and religious schools throughout the country and  appointed the religious teachers, they encouraged the migration of the Islamic scholars from  the Islamic world and they were rewarded with plenty of prizes, lands and other benefits.  They showed great respect and reverence for the Sufis of the different indigenous and foreign  Sufi schools like Chishtiyya and Naqshabandiyya. (H.Fisher, 2016, p. 99) 

The Judicial system was also based on the Hanafi school of thought of Sunni Islam. This was  the basis of the criminal law for all and both criminal and civil law for Muslims. But, when  the non-Muslims involved in the cases they were provided, legal advisors. Also, some internal  cases like cases related to the caste system were settled at their own Panchayath (a council  that has been set up in the villages). Mughal emperors acted very sensitively on internal  issues. They allowed sati1practice of Hindus only if a woman appeared herself and expressed  her own choice rather forced. (H.Fisher, 2016, p. 99) 

The Mughal emperors granted the freedom of religion and worship for all in their territories.  Even there are so many references in the Mughal history, on the grants and financial aids  made by Mughal rulers for temple constructions. (CHANDRA, 2005, pp. 177,250) Despite  the pressure from the orthodox Islamic scholars, Mughal rulers didn’t wish to alienate the  non-Muslims from their governance. They tried to reconcile between different religions and  to find out the commonalities through mutual dialogues. The destruction of the temple by  some the Mughal emperors was mostly politically motivated than religious sentiments. Number of Non-Muslims served in the imperial courts, even as the chief army commander  like Raja Todar Mal in the reign of Akbar. Also, most of the Mughal emperors had non Muslims wives as they married them without converting them to Islam. Now we can give   brief details about the religious policies of major Mughal emperors. (CHANDRA, 2005, p.  291) 

3.1. Babur 

Babur, the descendant of Timur was the founder of the great Mughal Empire that ruled the  major part of the Indian subcontinent over three centuries. He founded this empire defeating  Ibrahim Lodi, the ruler of the Lodi dynasty of Delhi at Panipat in 1526. (Islam Ansiklopedisi,  1998, p. 77) When he died in 1530, the great part of north India, starting from Kandahar to  Bengal was under his control. (Encyclopedia Britannica , 1965, p. 141) He bore the legacy of  Timur, who was converted to Islam, in the religious matters also, as he admired the scholars  and Sufi saints. He sought guidance and prayer from the Sufi saints, especially from  Naqshbandi Sufi order, which was more popular in that region. The late Naqshabandi pir  Khwaja Ubaidullah Ahrar (d.1490) came to Babur promising the battlefield victory and  rescue from the life threat. Babur donated land and other livestock for these Sufi saints in  return for their guidance and advice and married with royal family members. (H.Fisher, 2016,  p. 19) 

In certain wars like the war against Rana Sing of Rajput, he gave the colour of religion to  raise the morale of soldiers and declared this war as jihad. He assumed the title of ghazi soon  after the war. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 34) However, his religious policy towards Non-Muslim  was based on tolerance. There are no references to Babur proving the destruction of Hindu  temples. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 45) Also, there is no historical proof on the controversial  Babri mosque, which was destroyed by RSS and Sang Parivar (Fanatic Hindu Political  movements), allegedly claiming it was constructed in the birthplace of Rama, one of the  Hindu lords, destroying the temple. (PUNIYANI, 2009, p. 18) 

His advice in his will to his son Humayun is a significant example of tolerance. He says “My son, take note of the following: do not harbour religious prejudice in your heart.  You should dispense justice while taking note of the people’s religious sensitivities, and rites.  Avoid slaughtering cows in order that you could gain a place in the heart of the natives. This  will take you nearer to the people. Do not demolish or damage places of worship of any faith  and dispense full justice to all to ensure peace in the country. Islam can better be preached by  the sword of love and affection, rather than the sword of tyranny and persecution. Avoid the differences between the Shias and Sunnis. Look at the various characteristics of your people  just as characteristics of various seasons”2 

He was succeeded by his son Humayun. He ascended the throne amidst instability and  turmoil. He was engaged in the war between Afgan rebels as well as his own brothers.  Although he was defeated by an Afghan rebel Shershah and forced to leave the country at the  beginning, he could recapture the lost territories in 1555. He followed his father and  considered his will in the religious policy. The only difference between his father was that he  was associated with the Shiite sect of Islam and took the asylum in the court of Shah  Tahmasp. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 167) 

3.2. Akbar Shah  

Soon after the death of Humayun his 14-year-old son Akbar was enthroned. He was one of  the great rulers of the Mughal empire, who ruled almost two-thirds of the entire Indian  subcontinent for around for five decades. (E.STREUSAND, 2011, p. 213) He could manage  to control the whole empire through the centralized administrative system. He was also  known for his religious tolerance and reconciliation. His religious policy was designed  inspiring from the various factors like the Turko-Mughal tradition of his ancestors and Hindu 

Muslim rapprochement efforts of Bhakti and Sufi movements. His religious policy was multi dimensional and can be divided into three phases. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 168) 

3.2.1. The Early Phase (1556-73) 

During this period Akbar was an orthodox practicing Muslim, as he scrupulously performed  the daily prayers, he sent the delegation to Hajj and distributed the money for the poor. He  was devoted to the orthodox Muslim scholars like Abdulla Sultanpuri and Shaikh Abdunnabi  and used to listen to the lectures of these scholars. However, he followed the liberal religious  policy of his ancestors. In 1563, he remitted the pilgrim tax of Hindus to their holy places.  Also, he banned the enslavement of the wives and children of the Non-Muslims and married  to a number of Rajput princesses without converting to Islam, and allowing them to practice  their religion within the palace. (Garbe, 1909, p. 19) 

Similarly, he granted permission to worship idols for Birbal, the Hindu minister of Akber.  Along with the strong influence of orthodox ulamas, he tried to win over the hearts of the  Hindus and other Non-Muslims. The significant step in this regard was the abolition of  Jizya3in 1564.4It was the fundamental component of any Muslim empire, ruled according to  Sharia and it determined the Muslims as the ruling class. The abolition of Jizya by Akbar  facilitated the equality between the citizens. Abul Fazal the grand vizier of Mughal and author  of Akbarnama, justifies it that the Jizya is unnecessary because people from all religions and  cultures joined in the service of Akbar and were equally loyal to them. Thus, it changed the  nature of the Empire fundamentally. (E.STREUSAND, 2011, p. 247) 

3.2.2. The second phase (1573-80) 

This was the period of introspection in the religious policy of Akbar. He got leisure time to  engage in discusses with scholars, philosophers, and Sufis in various matters and made him  think that he was assisted by God almighty and chosen to unify the Indian-subcontinent under  his command after his successive and remarkable victories against his counterparts. (AQUIL,  2009, p. 79) 

In this context, ibadat Khana, or hall of prayers has been constructed in Fatehpur Sikri in  1575.it was the large rectangular building, built near the palace, with spacious galleries on  each side. At first, it was opened for Muslims only and selected Shaikhs, Ulamas, pious men,  and attendants were invited. The Emperor used to sit with them and engaged in scholarly  discussions. (AQUIL, 2009, p. 80) 

The emperor was so upset when he noticed the difference and contradicting opinions of  ulamas and competition and agony between them to establish superiority over the others. His  only aim from these debates was to ascertain the truth and discover the reality. (CHANDRA,  2005, p. 171) Especially the contradicting opinions of ulama over the question of emperor  about the number of wives allowed for a man. (AQUIL, 2009, p. 84) Eventually, Akbar  opened the door of ibadatkhana for all like Hindus, Jains Christians, and Zoroastrians. It  resulted in further confusion as the very fundamental and undisputed matters were also  questioned. Each delegate tried to prove their superiority over the other and to convert the  emperor to their faith. Finally, he closed the ibadathkhana in 1582, realizing the futility of  these debates and continued these discussions privately in the cot near to his bedroom. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 172) 

3Jizya is a percapita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on certain Non-Muslim subjects-dhimmis permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law. (Wikipedia , 2018) 

4According to Badayuni, the court historian and orthodox ulama in the reign of Akbar, places it in 1579. He  mentioned in his Book “Munthakhab-ut-Tawarikh that Akbar ordered to Abdunnabi and MakhdumulMulk to  determine the amount of Jizya in 1575-76 And they issued the farman, but this order disappeared quickly as  reflection on water (AQUIL, 2009, p. 85)

During this period Akbar began to abstain from the Islamic observances like daily prayer and  started doing certain practices of different religions, though he didn’t give up on Islam  completely. (AQUIL, 2009, pp. 87-96) Even though the ibadathkhana is closed in a very  short duration it brought two important consequences that led to the radical change in the  religious policy of Akbar. Firstly, Akbar was convinced by these debates that there are certain  elements of truth in all religions. This idea resulted in the development of his concept of Sulh 

i-Kull or peace between all religions. Secondly, the narrowness of views in the ibadathkhana  debates and arrogance of court ulamas, the growing influence of Abul Fazal and Birbal led to  the breach between ulamas and Akbar. (CHANDRA, 2005, pp. 172-173) Another important turning point in the reign of Akbar is the issuing of the Mahzar (manifesto), an attested document signed by leading court ulamas including Shaikh  Abdunnabi and Abdulla Sultanpuri. It was the outcome of the suggestion of Sheikh Mubarak,  the father of Abul Fazal, that the emperor was the imam of the age and mujtahid. Akbar was  convinced quickly that he was mostly frustrated in certain fatwas given by the court ulamas. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 174) Mahzar is the document that gives certain religious authority to  Emperor Akbar, placing him as the imam adil comparable to caliph and giving the status  higher than the mujtahid, as he can issue the religious decrees that are not in contrary to the  nass (explicit decree) of Qur’an and Hadith. Modern historian Raziuddin Aquil says: “Five major issues emerge in the above document. First, Akbar is accorded the status of  imam-i-adil and sultan-i-adil, which are positions comparable to that of the caliph. Second,  this position is placed above that of mujtahids, or interpreters of the Shariat. Third, in case  there is a difference of opinion amongst the mujtahids, Akbar’s recommendation resolving the  issue would be binding on all. Fourth, Akbar could issue orders in conformity to the Qur’an.  Finally, it was aimed at establishing the glory of God (hasat-ullah)and the propagation of  Islam (izharul ajra haquq ul Islam).” (AQUIL, 2009, p. 102) 

This document had an international implication as he wished to compete with the present  Islamic rulers of the Ottoman and Safavid rulers. It also strengthened the breach between  Akbar and ulamas and he was criticized by most of the orthodox ulamas.  

3.2.3. The Third Phase (1581-1605) 

In this final stage, he set up a new religion or cult of Din-i-Ilahi, a mixture of doctrines of  various religions like Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, and Zoroastrian. There is a good deal of  controversy about this new religion because it has no fundamental characteristics of the  religion like the belief system, rituals, and holy book. (CHANDRA, 2005, p. 180) He was so selective in choosing followers of this new religion and he himself initiated them with certain  rituals. The main aim of this religion was to ensure sovereignty by sacrificing the four  degrees; property, life, honour, and religion. It is very important to note that he never forced  anyone to join his new religion. This can be better understood from the reply of Man Sing,  one of his army chief. He said:  

“If by discipleship was meant willingness to sacrifice one’s life he had already carried his life  in his hands. What need was there for further proof? If, however, the term has another  meaning and refers to faith, I certainly am a Hindu. If your order me to do so, I will become a  Muslim, but I know not of the existence of any other (religion) than these two.” (CHANDRA,  2005, p. 182)  

Thus, the eclecticism, policy of sulh-i-kulland treatment of all religion as same was praised by  non-Muslims, while he was harshly criticized by Muslim scholars, especially Sheikh Ahmad  Sirhindi. 

3.3. Jahangir 

Jahangir, son of Akbar succeeded him when Akbar died in 1605. The first thing he did soon  after his enthronement was the changing of state religion from Din-i-Ilahi back to Islam. He  was also tolerant towards all religions, excepting the case of Sikhism. The fifth Sikh guru was  executed during his reign. He was interested in the orthodox Islamic scholars and Sufis but he  never allowed them to interfere in his empire. He imprisoned the famous Naqshbandi pir  Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi though he released after a year. (H.Fisher, 2016, p. 153) Like his  father, he also engaged in religious discussion with Christian missionaries like Portuguese  Jesuits. When the Portuguese naval vessels captured the merchant and pilgrim ship of Mughal  courtiers, in retaliation, he closed the Catholic churches in Lahore and Agra and stopped the  financial aid to the Jesuit missionaries. Also, he allowed the Jain ascetics in court and listened  to them and vowed not to hunt for weeks, even though he was so interested in animal hunting. (H.Fisher, 2016, p. 156) 

3.4. Shah Jahan 

Another important Mughal ruler is Shah Jahan (1628-1658), son of Jahangir. He was the ruler  who tried to enrich the Mughal architecture as the great Mughal monuments like Taj Mahal of  Agra, Red Fort, and Jama Masjid of Delhi were constructed during his reign. Unlike his  father and grandfather, he was a devout orthodox Sunni Muslim. He scrupulously observed  the daily prayers, fast of Ramadan, abstained Alcohol and restarted the imperial sponsorship of Haj. He tried to enforce Sharia and favour to ulamas and Sufis than all of his predecessors. (H.Fisher, 2016, p. 167) He restricted most of the un-Islamic court cultures that were  introduced in the reign of Akbar, as he banned prostration before the ruler. He prevented  marriages between Hindus and Muslim women. He temporarily re-imposed the Hindu pilgrim  tax, which was abolished by Akbar and he made the apostasy a criminal matter. He brought  some restrictions on building new Hindu temples and destroyed some. Actually, these were  largely based on his political policy rather than religion. But later in 1637, he reversed most of  these changes and returned to the previous Mughal customs. It happened, maybe by the  growing influence of his eldest son Dara Shukoh, the scholar and student of Sanskrit and the  advocate of religious liberalism. (E.STREUSAND, 2011, p. 251) 

Similarly, he respected other faith as his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal was of Shia sect and  his mother was from a Hindu Rathor Rajput. He patronized Hindu poets and Muslim  scientific works were translated into Sanskrit. His Taj Mahal, the crowning glory of the  Mughal Empire was the greatest example of blended Hindu-Muslim architecture. (William J.  Duiker, 2016, p. 425) 

3.5. Aurangzeb 

The last great emperor of the Mughal Empire is Aurangzeb (1658-1707). Although he was  engaged in the war of succession and continuous threat of Marathas, the Mughal Empire  reached the zenith of power in his reign. (Islam Ansiklopedisi, 1998, p. 18/77) He was  ultimately an Islamic puritan. He was known for his self-discipline and simple lifestyle. He  banned all un-Islamic traditions of the court, Hindu astrologers were discouraged, the great  festival of Muharram, celebrated by Shiite Muslims, and lamps lit on the tomb of Sufi saints  were banned. Alcohol, narcotics, and gambling were prohibited and restrictions were made on  the prostitutes, though these measures were less practical. The re-imposition of Jizya was the  revolutionary action that caused the hatred of non-Muslims. Destruction of the temple was  most allegedly exaggerated by some historians. But these destructions were more politically  or strategically motivated. Like Jahangir, he also had a bad relationship with the Sikh  community, as the ninth Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur, who revolted against Mughal, was  assassinated by Aurangzeb. That fostered the hostility of the Sikh community towards the  Mughal Empire. (AVARI, 2013, p. 115) 

Some historians blame the religious policy of Aurangzeb as the cause of the decline of the  Mughal Empire. But it is not completely true because the various revolt of Marathas and  Rajput and Sikhs were occurred by separate and unrelated causes. As Athar Ali demonstrated “The ethnic composition of the Mughal ruling class did not change substantially during  Aurangzeb’s reign. Without the specific trigger of Jaswant Singh’s death without a living  heir, the Rajput rebellion might not have occurred at all.” (AVARI, 2013, p. 252) 

He had changed his policies number of times during his long reign. The extension of the  territory and the ensuring of the sovereignty were his ultimate aim like any other ruler. The  number of non-Muslim officers increased in his time to 33% higher than in the period of Shah  Jahan. He funded for the restoration and renovation of the Hindu temples like Balaji temple,  the temple of Ujjain and other Jain temples. The re-imposition of the Jizya was also  temporary and Brahmins, old men, and Handicapped were exempted from this tax. (PUNIYANI, 2009, p. 70) 

After Aurangzeb, the decline of the Mughal Empire has been started. The frequent war of  succession, internal and external threats of rebels like the Marathas, Afgan powers and finally  the British invasion and colonialism caused the decline of the great Mughal Empire in 1857.  Bahadur Shah Zafer was the last ruler of this empire, who died in Rangoon, where he was  exiled by the British. (Kanda, 2007, p. 12) 

4. Millet System of Ottoman Empire and Mughal Empire  

The Ottoman Empire, which ruled most of the Islamic world over centuries, was the powerful  counterpart of the Mughal Empire. It has also a wonderful history of blended culture and  religious tolerance. The religious policy of the Ottoman Empire towards non-Muslims was  mainly based on millet system.5 They governed the non-Muslim subjects of their territory  according to the dhimmi law of Islam. Thus, they could maintain the unity and togetherness of  twenty more ethnic groups and four religions of its vast territory of east and west. We cannot  compare the religious policy of the Ottoman Empire to the Mughal Empire, mainly because  both have different situations. Ottoman Empire has to deal with the non-Muslim minority  while the Mughal Empire has to deal with the non-Muslim majority. However, in case of  religious tolerance both share the same culture. While we examine the history of both great  Muslim empires, we can find out that their religious policy and concept of cultural co existence played a major role in their long period of rule.  

5. Conclusion 

The Indian subcontinent has a rich culture of religious tolerance and cultural coexistence. Its  prominent examples can be seen in the period of the Mughal Empire. Mughal Empire like any  other Muslim empires accepted Islam as the state religion, although sharia law is not enforced  strictly in all periods. Excepting some minor policy changes in a certain periods, from the  very beginning, most of the Mughal rulers followed the policy of religious tolerance. When  we analyze the history of the Mughal Empire we can clearly understand that the main aim of  the Mughal rulers was the extension of empire and keeping their sovereignty unshaken. The  Islamisation of India was not their ultimate objective, although they favoured Islamic scholars  and Sufi saints. Similarly, when we are analyzing Mughal rulers, we can find Akbar as ultra secular in religious matters and Aurangzeb as more orthodox and puritan Muslims. Many of  the allegedly interpreted intolerant activities of Mughal rulers like temple destructions and  killing of religious leaders were ultimately politically motivated rather than religious  sentiments. The active inclusiveness of non-Muslim officers in the rule was the key success of  the Mughal Empire, as many of the Mughal rulers had the Hindu Army chiefs and  commanders while the growing religious revolts and insecurity feelings of non-Muslims were  the causes of the decline of the empire.  

Reference

  1.  A Hindu practice, that a widow is doing self-immolation in funeral pyre of her dead husband. for more details  see (ELIADE, 1987, p. 14/128)
  2.  This was taken from the document preserved in state library of Bhopal. Quoted from (HASAN, 2013, p. 81)
  3. Jizya is a percapita yearly tax historically levied by Islamic states on certain Non-Muslim subjects-dhimmis permanently residing in Muslim lands under Islamic law. (Wikipedia , 2018) 
  4. According to Badayuni, the court historian and orthodox ulama in the reign of Akbar, places it in 1579. He  mentioned in his Book “Munthakhab-ut-Tawarikh that Akbar ordered to Abdunnabi and MakhdumulMulk to  determine the amount of Jizya in 1575-76 And they issued the farman, but this order disappeared quickly as  reflection on water (AQUIL, 2009, p. 85)
  5.  The millet system was a governing system for the citizens under the hegemony of the Ottoman Empire,  grouping them based on religion or beliefs. The term ‘millet’ is an Arabic word which means community, and it  is given different meanings in different periods of history. In the late, 19th century the term ‘millet’ is translated  to the western term ‘nation’. In the Islamic literature the term ‘millet’ is used to denote the religious communities  as the Qur’an used it for Islam and other religions. Similarly, According to the terminology of the Ottoman  Empire it means the religious community which accepts certain vocal or written commandments like Christians  and Jews. (Encyclo Pedia of Islam 2005: p, 64)

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20. William J. Duiker, J. J. (2016). The Essential World History, Volume II: Since 1500. Boston: Cengage Learning.


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