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Religion and state during the reign of Mughal emperor Akbar

By: Taniya Ray

    K.A Nizami in his book ‘Akbar and religion’ divided Akbar’s viewed from religious angle into three phases. Many others scholars represented it another way. In this paper I will try to mix them and present it. I will not create any new argument.

                                              Akbar’s contribution to the establishment of Mughal authority in Hindustan on a firm basis has engaged the attention of modern historians for a long time. Akbar’s religious policy is often viewed as being linked to his transformation of nobility into a composite ruling group within its ranks fairly large number of Shias and Raj puts chieftains.”[1]   Akbar’s however personal world outlook many ideological influences also shaped his religious policy in the last 25 years of his region. His religious adventures, spread over span of half a century as they are, reflect different ideological and emotional phases which can be delineated only in their socio-political context.

 The overall cultural and religious climate of 16th century India was more tolerant and of change. Indian society and culture was experiencing a richly creative phase. Several centuries of dominant Indo-Muslim power had forced Hindu institutions to adapt to that reality by strengthening popular devotional expressions. Generations of Muslim life in India had gradually shaped accommodation to Indian society And Hinduism. The poet saint Kabir offered a ground where Ram/Rahim would be worshipped freely, rejecting formalism of a religion with Sufis. The sultans of Delhi followed more or less secular policy, without enforcing the Shari at forcefully. When the Mughals came Babur took the epithet of Ghazi .Homerun was largely influenced by Persian culture and later on he became a Shia.  However Akbar had scarcely any chance to interact with his father. Akbar’s guardian Barium khan and his tutor Mir Abdul Latif Qazvin were Shia and were free of sectarian practices. Later on, came Sheikh Mubarak and his sons Faizi and Abul fazl, who introduced him on Islamized version of Greek philosophy. The increasing presence of panthetic Sufi doctrines also caused a momentous step in the development of his worldview.               

                    “No scientific evaluation of Akbar’s religious ideas or behaviour can be attempted without a proper chronological frame work. Akbar’s life viewed from religious angle, particularly with references to his attitude towards Islam, falls into three distinct phases.    

                                                   First phase        1556-1574       

                                                  Second phase      1575-1580

                                                 Third phase         1581-1605” [2]    

The first phase begins with Akbar’s accession to the throne in 1556 at the age of 14 years. Between 1556-1560, Akbar allowed the normal life of an orthodox Sunni Muslim, despite being guided by Shia Barium khan. Between 1560-1565, Akbar showed some elements of liberalism by taking Hindu wives without conversion and allowing them to carry on their religious rituals. The year 1562 had significance in Akbar’s life. His contact with Ajmer was established through his marriage with the daughter of Raja Bihari mal and had a deep psychological turning during this year. He also took a Christian wife. In the year 1563 pilgrim tax was remitted and jizya was abolished in 1567.In 1574 he changed the name the name of Prayag to Allahabad. Apart from his marriage with Raj put princess, he found a loyal and worthy friend in Man Singh. Between 1566 and 1569, Akbar still acted as a Sunni. Two members of the the ulema, Abdullah sultanpuri and Abdun nabi became his idols. Abdun Nabi Khan , held the post of sadr-u’s-sadur. Akbar had briefly re impose Jizya and declared a jihad, against Chittor. Actually he was feeling isolated. The Uzbeks and Afghans were rebellious, as was his brother Mirza hakim. So he needed the support of the orthodox Muslims. But, he was in control of situation soon. Uzbeks were putdown. Chittor was conquered .Man sing and Todar Mal kept the Afghans under control. Gujarat was subdued. Mirza Hakim was exterminated. His contact with Ajmer Sharif had an impact on him. So; a stabilization process took place between 1569-1574.”He undertook several journeys to Ajmer. He went there on foot after his victory of Chittor (1568), went again their after the birth of his son Salim and ordered construction of buildings at Ajmer and Nag our. In 1564 he visited at Delhi at the tomb of sheikh Nizam-u-d-din-auliya.”[3]


       In his early year, Akbar was not only a practising Muslim but also had a very intolerant attitude towards the Hindus. He during those years had forced many Hindus to be converted to Islam. But a change came in his mind-soul, when he started marrying   Raj put   princesses. He allowed his Hindu wives to retain their religion and often performed Homs in their company. In 1565 an amount was granted for the support of a temple at Vrindavan. His growing contact with Sheikh Salim Chisti, the Sufi saint of Ajmer, a new and entirely new concept of Islam was introduced to him, which essence of Islam was not getting circumcised, but in the readiness ad capacity to fight against over powering worldly desires. By 1573 Akbar had come to Sheikh Muinuddin Chisti as his spiritual preceptor.

The liberal principals of the empire were strengthened by bringing able Hindus into nobility. Mansabs were given to other also on the basis of the competence” [4] in that time Hindu trio of Man sing, Birbal and Todar mal became Akbar’s  most favourite councillors.

       Later on Sheikh Mubarak, Abul Fazl and Faizi joined Akbar’s court. Here were three vastly learned and liberal men condemned by the orthodoxy. Their superior reasoning and vast knowledge clearly showed the follies in the ulema.

      By 1575, Akbar’s life was n turmoil. During his campaign in Gujarat, he found Gujarat in the grip of sectarian and theological controversies. It set his mind thinking on possible solution for these conflicts in Muslim society. Soon after his return from Gujarat, he issued orders for the construction of the Ibadan Khana- a large hall to house systematic debates in religion and theology. At first debates were confined to Islamic theology. But, he continued bickering and quarrech of ulema disillusioned the emperor, more over both the idols of Akbar, Makdum-ul-mulk and Abdun Nabi were found to be corrupt. The capital punishment given to a Brahman for blasphemy, by Abdun Nabi, despite the emperor’s reluctance, also infuriated Akbar. The ultimate collapse of the ulema was on the cards. Now Sheikh Mubarak was Akbar’s mentor .Faizi and Abul fazl his dearest friends.1579 onwards, non-Muslim scholars were invited to the Ibadat khana. They expressed their own point of view, and the emperor was attracted by some of their philosophies.

               Several Hindu scholars were invited to the discussion, such as Madhu saraswati, Madhusudan, Damudar Bhatt, Ram Tirth and Aditya .Several Sanskrit text, including the ‘Atharva Veda’ and Mahabharata were translated into Persian. Purushottam was asked to translate the Sanskrit and Hindi divine names into Persian. According to Makhan lal Roychoudhury, Yodha bai was allowed a separate Bramhanical establishment within the palace. Several Hindus were given high post in the court, such as Tansen(the chief singer),Daswanath(the chief painter)and Todar  Mal (finance minister) .Akbar had interactions with the saints Tulsi das and Surdas .His favourite councillor  Birbal was an ardent  sun- worshipper. He inspired Akbar to a heliocentric belief with the sun as the chief source of all power and energy. Inspired Akbar adopted sun –worship and Bhagirath Bhattacharya to translate Suryasahasranama for him.

         A selected group of Zoroastrians priests were also visited to Akbar’s court. The Parsee cult of Fire was readily adopted by Akbar and an eternal Fire was lit in the palace. It was described as divine light. (Can be interpreted Akbar as a source of light-sun-power. The Parsee custom of Nauroj was taken to celebrate the Emperor’s birthday.

               Jainism left an indelible impression on Akbar’s mind. The Jaina scholar Hirvijaya Suri was awarded by him the title of Jagat Guru.

                              Right from the siege of Surat in 1573 Akbar had come into contact with the Portuguese. Their embassies to Akbar’s court aroused Akbar’s interest in Christianity. The first Jesuit mission to Akbar was laid by Rudolph Aquaviva. Aquaviva was proficient in Persian, and was appointed tutor of prince Murad .Akbar had an interest about the renaissance in Europe. He sent Hajji Habibullah to Goa for gathering information’s about European politics; society, arts and crafts .John new berry and Ralph Flitch’s mission brought English culture to court, with a letter from Queen Elizabeth.

           The discussions in Ibadat khana included also Sikhs, Jews even Charvakas. These revolutionised Akbar’s thinking and convinced him that not a single step should be taken without strong reason.

                       Akbar’s religious policy got its foundation from 1580 to 1585. Two religious assemblies were held, ultimately led to Akbar’s declaration (Mahzar) proclaiming himself as Imam-I-Adil-supreme interpreter of God. “The document was very carefully drafted by Sheikh Mubarak and was signed by seven ulemas

1.     Maulana Abdullah Sultanpuri.

2.     Sheikh Abdun Nabi

3.     Ghazi Khan

4.     Hakim-Ul-Mulk

5.     Sheikh Mubarak

6.     Qazi Jaladuddin Multani

7.     Sadri jahan Mufti.”[5]

If there were confliction in the views of debaters. He was entitled to choose any of the interpreters. It was actually an idea the father of Abul Fazl and Faizi, set the authority of the king was higher than Mujtahid. Within this edict Akbar’s judgement was set above every legal and religious authority. So it was the promulgation of the doctrine of imperial infallibility .Akbar pounced upon the dominance of the intolerant orthodox and allowed free development of genuine religious spirit. Mahzar reproduced by Badauni and Nizamuddin was the outcome of Akbar’s eagerness to win recognition as the sole head of orthodox Muslims of India and not the whole of world. Different opinions have been expressed about the nature of Mahzar. “ Some held that it led to complete unification of Islam by Akbar, others think that it was a manifestation of Akbar’s desire to be considered a good Muslim. Or Noer considered it the funeral oration of the ulama.The document had greater international significance than generally conceded”[6]

  However, the orthodox Ulema did not like this.Ulema was more offended by a series of liberal ordinances .From 1586 to 1590, cow slaughter was prohibited. Sati was discouraged. Akbar himself prevented the sati of the unwilling widow of Jaimal.The shariat dress code was dismissed. Silk and finer dresses, Gold and Silver jewelleries, embroideries and chapkans were allowed. The minimum age of marriage was determined as 16 years for boys and 14 years for girl. Marriage between cousins was discouraged. Syallabus of Madras’s and Muqtabs were changed.

             Naturally, the Ulemas were outraged. They could not easily oppose the Mahzar which they had themselves signed. So they had misinterpreted the use of the new phrase Allah -o -Akbar, in khutbah, by implying that it suggested Akbar thought himself to be God. “In religious parlance this phrase, which is frequently repeated in the prayers, means’ God is great’, but it is susceptible of another interpretation, meaning ‘Akbar is God”.[7]

According to J.F Richards, the ulama expected Akbar to display a model of piety and devotion and ensure the rule of sharia in a   ‘Dar –al-Islam’. He shocked ulama even more by refusing to enforce the Sharia or to persecute Mahadawis and abolishing pilgrimage tax and jizya. The mahzar was the final blow.’ Both Abdun Nabi and Makdum Ul Mulk had signed the Mahzar but they gave out that their seals were obtained under duress. Akbar was annoyed when he heard this. As a result both of them were asked to proceed on Haji.’[8]

                  According to Badauni Akbar was repressive towards the orthodox Muslims .Vincent Smith opined he had renounced Islam .He has been alleged to have close down mosques and stopped Namaz. He had also turned many mosques into store houses and stables. Thus Iqtidar Alam Khan also accepts Akbar’s restrictiveness against orthodox Islam .Between 1591 and 1601, Smith shows regulations like the prohibition of naming children after Muhammad, restriction on building repairing or restoring mosques, forbidding of cow slaughter, meet eating, consuming garlic and onion and keeping beards, introduction of Sijda (prostration) to Emperor, allowing Gold and Silver dresses etc to show Akbar had renounced Islam. Smith also opines that Akbar banned prayers, the fast of Ramzan, pilgrimages to Mecca and use of Arabic alphabet. But according to Badauni Hussain Azad’s Darbar-i-Akbari shows that Friday Namaz was uttered from the portico of Abul Fazl’s house. Akbar himself Performed Namaz in Abul Fazl’s grave. He had the department named Jahaj-i-Ilahi for conducting pilgrimages to Mecca. Thus, Islam was not deprived of the liberalism which Akbar extended to other religions.

         During 1581 to 1605 Akbar adopted an attitude of distrust towards the conservative sections of the ulema. .He started to criticise not only the orthodoxy but the principals of Islamic faith also. He now wanted to be the religious leader of all Indian people. As his polity was moving from its limited Indo-Muslim character to Indian polity based on a national outlook. Actually religion gradually became the main instrument for achieving political supremacy .He sought to utilize it for the consolidation of Indian polity. He clearly understood that only the Muslims could not serve the larger interest of a State.”[9] In 1582 formal debates on religion were stopped and Din-I-illahi was promulgated.

     The crystallisation of Akbar’s religious believes and thinking was a long drawn out process, and culminated in what is known as Tauhid -I –illahi  or din I illahi. Vincent smith considers it to be a new faith. It was adopted by 18 members.

1. Abul Fazl

2. Faizi

3. Sheikh Mubarak

4. Jafar Beg Asaf Khan

5 qasim I kahi.

6 Abdus Samad

7Azam Khan Koka

8 Mullah Shah Muhammad.

9 Sufi Ahmed

10-12. Sadar I jahan and his two sons.

13 Mir Sharif

14 Sultan khwaja

15 Mirza Jani Beg

                       16 Taqi

                       17 Sheikh Zada Gosala

                      18 Birbal

These members were bound to Akbar by Ikhlas-i-chahargana, the readiness to sacrifice lives, property, honour and religion .The disciples were initiated by the Emperor and were asked to practise non violence (except in war and chase.).The disciples on seeing each other would address as Allah u Akbar with Jall a jalaluh as response. Each member was to give a party on his birth anniversary .They should abstain from eating meat, and in the month of their from going near it. The vessels used by the butchers, fishermen and bird catchers were to be avoided. Disciples were not to cohabit with pregnant, old women. Every disciple was given a portrait of the Emperor to put it on of his turban.

10 virtues of Din I Ilahi were

1 Liberality and beneficence

2 Loathing of evil and repulsion of anger by calmness

3 Overpowering worldly lusts

4 Endeavour to obtain freedom from worldly existence and to accumulate precious deeds for the future real and over lasting world.

5 Piety, wisdom and devotion, with frequent meditation on the consequences of Islam.

6  Strength of prudence in the desire of sublime actions.

7  purification of the soul by yearning after God

8  Good relation with brothers, giving precedence to their will over own.

9  complete alienation from the material world and perfect attachment to the Supreme Being.

10  addressing everyone alike with soft voice, gentle words and pleasing speech.

      Vincent Smith considers Din I illahi as a monument of Akbar’s folly, a new religion which failed to win more than 18 followers. To him, it was a complete departure from Islam, and a fusion of Zoroastrianism, Jainism and Hinduism. On Noer view it as a sort of Parse Sufi Hinduism. Ishtiaq Hussain Qureshi thinks that Akbar’s tolerance was disastrous for Islam and considers his reign as the darkest period in the history of Indian Islam.

On the other hand Aziz Ahmed thinks that Akbar did not abjure Islam, but focused on projecting Islam as a tolerant religion.

 A deeper analysis of the Din I illahi shows that in reality, Akbar did not preach any new religion at all .The Tauhid I illahi according to Makhan lal Roychoudhury was a likeminded enlightened group debating, discussing and arguing about religious issues.Iftiqar Alam Khan speaks of the influence of the teachings of Kabir and Nanak on Akbar.

                           Akbar’s place as the supreme lord which Roychoudhury view as an adoption of the Murshid- murid relationship of Sufism, has been viewe by Stephen Blake as an attempt to build a patrimonial bureaucratic Empire.

    It is amazing that except Birbal, no Hindu noble felt attracted to the new cult brotherhood or philosophy of Akbar.

  J.f Richards also understands the matter as a process of binding nobles to Akbar, through a well disciplined master-disciple relationship.

S.A.A.Rizvi also says that it was not a religion, but an exclusive courtly culture. The disciples were not promised any heaven, or any worldly benefit. Akbar’s religious leadership was limited to preventing the orthodox Ulema from using the state to serve their own deeds. The devotion to the emperor was solicited to generate devotion to the state. The need of high officers of uprightness and integrity could only be met by a bond of followers who were prepared to give priority to imperial interest over their life, property, honour and religion. The devotion to the state was the genesis of Akbar’s policy, and he never hesitated to use customs like Jharokha darshan and miracle mongering to reach the goal. The four degrees of devotion provided the principal ideology which sought to unify the new Mughal elite around the Mughal throne .Sulh I kul (absolute peace and order) was an extended secularised version of Din I Illahi. The court sought to extend the basic human rights through this, and Akbar had exhausted his life in trying to evolve a system suitable for this purpose. Through these two concepts Akbar showed his attitude by using religion successfully as the means of the foundation of a quasi modern secular liberal state.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Nizami, A. Khaliq: Akbar and religion. Delhi: Idarah-I-Adabiyat-Delli, 1989. Print.

Chandra, Satish: HISTORY of MEDIEVAL INDIA. New Delhi: Orient Longman Pvt.Ltd, 2007. Print.

Alam, Muzaffar: Subramanyam, Sanjay: (ed) THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY: The Mughal State 1526-1750. New Delhi: Oxford India Press, 1998. Print.

Smith, A.Vinsent: AKBAR THE GREAT MOGUL 1542-1605. Bombay: Oxford India Press, 1958. Print.

Sastri, Roychoudhury Makhanlal: DIN-I-ILAHI OR THE RELIGION OF AKBAR. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press, 1941. Print.

 Khan,Alam Iqtidar: Akbar’s personality Traits and world outlook: A critical Reappriasal. Source : Social 16- Scientist, vol. 20 , No. 9/10 (Sep-Oct., 1992 ), pp. 30 http : //www.jstor. org/Stable/3517713

Khan,Alam Iqtidar: The Nobility under Akbar and the Devlopment of His religious policy, 1560-80. Source Joural of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great britain and Ireland, No. ½ (Apr., 1968), pp. 29-36  http : //www.jstor. org/Stable25203020

 

 

 



[1] Khan,Alam Iqtidar: Akbar’s personality Traits and and world outlook : A Critical Reappriasal. pg 2

[2] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat         )100.

[3] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat         )104.

 

 

[4] Satish Chandra, History Of Mughal India (first published 2007,  Glorious printers) 252

[5] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat       ) 127.

[6] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat       )129. 

[7] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat       )  136.

[8] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat        ) 131.

[9] K.A.Nizami, Akbar and Religion (first published         ,Idrah-i-Adabiyat         )131.

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