JAHANGIR’S (1627-1658) LEADERSHIP ENDEAVOURS IN STRENGTHENING THE CONTINUITY OF THE MUGHALS IN INDIA

Article DOI:10.21474/IJAR01/13365  

DOI URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/13365  

RESEARCH ARTICLE  

JAHANGIR’S (1627-1658) LEADERSHIP ENDEAVOURS IN STRENGTHENING THE CONTINUITY OF  THE MUGHALS IN INDIA  

Mohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan Ashari¹, Nursafira Lubis Safian², Napisah Karimah Ismail¹ and Ezad  Azraai Jamsari¹ 

1. Research Centre for Arabic Language and Islamic Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti  Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 

2. Department of Arabic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University of Malaysia, Jalan  Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.  

Manuscript History  

Received: 30 June 2021  

Final Accepted: 31 July 2021  Published: August 2021  

Key words:- 

Political Leadership, History Of Political  Thought, Jahangir, Mughal, Islam in 17th Century India 

Jahangir succeeded his father, Akbar after the latter stabilised Mughal  rule in India. Although there are arguments that Jahangir did not  achieve successes like his father, there were some endeavours by  Jahangir which strengthened the continuity of Mughal rule. Hence, the  purpose of this article is to examine his efforts to consolidate Mughal  rule in India in his time. On the whole, this is a qualitative research  using the methods of historical study and content analysis. Data was collected from primary and secondary sources and analysed. Research findings show that Jahangir was more focused on domestic development such as proclaiming Dustur al-Amal for administration.  He also succeeded in putting down rebellions and developed culture and arts, including architecture. His own personality as a leader inclined him to be a patron of the arts, intellectual and cultural activities, as well as a believer of legal principles for social justice.  Akbar’s policy of expanding territories was not Jahangir’s priority because he gave more attention to managing the crises of rebellion in  Mughal territory. 

 Introduction:- 

According to Robinson (2007), Jahangir’s rule witnessed the development of the Mughal Empire in the phase of  consolidating power and glory of civilization. Jahangir continued from the basis founded by his father, Akbar. Due  to this, the development phase of Mughal rule did not rely fully on Jahangir’s leadership, but was closely associated  with the fundamental system of Mughal rule established by Akbar. Robinson’s statement marginalised Jahangir’s  role in Mughal rule as if Jahangir did not take any significant initiative to ensure the survival and continuity of the  Empire. Is Robinson’s statement acceptable or otherwise?Mughal history during Jahangir’s era was frequently  discussed in past writings, briefly or in detail. However, studies such as conducted by Richards (2008), Srivastava  (1957), Qureshi (1984), and Fisher (2016) mostly touched on Mughal political development, particularly on the  challenges to Jahangir’s rule that he had to deal with. In that regard, the purpose of this article is to examine the  history of his rule and illuminate his efforts in ensuring the continuity of the Mughal empire. This finding should  add to information about Jahangir’ rule, particularly in a broader context of discussion that is not limited to merely  political development. 

Corresponding Author:- Mohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan Ashari 

Address:- Research Centre for Arabic Language and Islamic Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies,  Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

Jahangir: Brief Biography

Jahangir inherited the Mughal empire in the year 1605AD. Jahangir, or his real name, Muhammad Sultan Salim, was  born on 9th September 1569AD in Fatehpur Sikri (Rashid, 1974). According to Srivastava (1957), he was named  after a sufi called Shaykh Salim Chishti by his father. Jahangir received his early education at age four years after a  ceremony to celebrate the commencement of his education at Fatehpur Sikri on 28 th November 1573AD. He was  given religious instruction by some Islamic scholars, such as Mawlana Mir Kalan Harvi, Shaykh Ahmad al-Sirhindi  and Qutb al-Din Muhammad Khan Atga (Rashid, 1974). Later, Jahangir also studied other subjects such as Persian,  Turkish, Arabic, Hindi and Sankskrit languages and literature, arithmetic, history, geography, science, botany,  zoology, music and arts. The teacher who had a great impact on him was ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan Khanan, son of  Bayram Khan. ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan Khanan was appointed by Akbar as Jahangir’s teacher because of his  expertise in Arabic, Turkish, Persian, Hindi and Sanskrit languages. Moreover, ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan Khanan was  also a military commander and authoritative administrator. Due to his excellent qualifications, Akbar decided that he  would be the best educator and guide for Jahangir in the intellectual, administrative and military aspects. 

Jahangir’s upbringing and education by ‘Abd al-Rahman Khan Khanan was not limited to languages and literature,  as Jahangir was also taught the intricacies of administration and military science. Hs was instructed in martial arts  and weaponry. Based on this knowledge, Jahangir trained and acquired combat and hunting skills (Srivastava,  1957). As a rule, princes were given military and administrative training to prepare them before ascension to the  throne, as they needed to be competent and authoritative rulers, with wisdom to deal with any kind of threats to the state or themselves or their subjects. Jahangir joined the Mughal military at age just 12 years. In a military campaign  at Kabul in the year 1581AD, he was entrusted to lead a military force. In that campaign, he was given full authority  to strategise military operations without any interference from anyone. Following that campaign, Jahangir’s ranking  for service to the Mughal administration was raised from 10,000 mansabdar to 12,000 mansabdar in the  year1585AD. At the age of 15 years, Jahangir was married to his cousin, Man Bai, daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das,  ruler of Amber, on 13th February 1585AD (Srivastava, 1957). The marriage was arranged by Akbar with the  intention of strengthening relations between the Mughal Empire and the Rajput ruler. Hence, the strong position of the Mughal was reinforced by the support of the Hindu Rajput ruler through diplomatic relations as well as family  ties. 

Jahangir’s Leadership Endeavours

Jahangir ascended the throne on 3rd November 1605AD succeeding his father, Akbar who decided his son would  inherit his legacy. The coronation ceremony was held in Agra, whereby he also announced his regal title as al-Sultan  Abu al-Muzaffar Nur al-Din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi (Khafi Khan, 1869). His coronation ceremony  was graced with presentation of gifts from vassal states of the Mughal Empire. In addition, Jahangir also pardoned  and released a number of prisoners, and minted coins incused with his name in honour of his inauguration (Burn,  1963).Jahangir’s achievement in Mughal politics, particularly in administration, was considered as average in  comparison to Akbar’s. Akbar’s expansion of Mughal dominion to Indian territories was not continued by Jahangir  in his rule. This gave rise to the perception that Jahangir was a weak and incapable ruler who did not give serious  attention to administrative affairs. This opinion was reinforced by his habit of drinking alcohol which was said to  affect his focus on governance, opening the way for his wife, Nur Jahan, to directly influence Mughal politics and  administration (Srivastava, 1957). Hamka (2006) also described Nur Jahan’s excessive dominance in Mughal  politics as the cause for the perception that Jahangir was incompetent and weak, leading to internal rebellion,  especially involving the Mughal royals themselves. 

There were some policies of Akbar that were not continued by Jahangir for certain reasons. For example, the policy  of territorial expansion was not prioritised by Jahangir because the situation required him to put down rebellions  which arose, particularly from among his own sons. Another matter which Jahangir did not pursue was the idea of  Din-i-Ilahi (or known as Tawhid-i-Ilahi then) propounded by Akbar during his time. It was a syncretic religion to  combine some elements of all religions in India and reconcile differences dividing the subjects. Nevertheless,  discussion among religious scholars as happened during Akbar’s era, still took place during Jahangir’s time. In fact,  he also took part in such discussions (Moosvi, 2007; Khan, 2011). 

Dustur al-Amal Proclamation (Twelve Rules of Conduct or Orders) 

Nevertheless, this does not mean that Jahangir failed to do something or make any contribution in his rule. He  proclaimed a code, Dustur al-Amal (Rules of Conduct) for the welfare and betterment of the Empire. It contained 12  rules (Srivastava, 1957; al-Sadati, 2001)describedas follows:

1. He abolished tagma’ and meerwahi toll taxes, and taxes Subedars imposed on the people for their expenses.  2. He ordered jagirdars to build gateways and inns (caravanserai), mosques and waterwells along the journey  routes (every 30-40 kilometres) to ensure the safety and comfort of travellers. 

3. He disallowed examining the caravan of merchants without the knowledge and consent of the owners.  4. He ordered that deceased person’s property shall be inherited by his legal heirs. Unclaimed property would  be surrendered to the state treasury for public welfare. 

5. He prohibited against manufacturing and sale of intoxicants. 

6. He disallowed mutilation of limbs and cutting the nose and ears of criminals. 

7. He prohibited landlords from seizing farmers’ land by force.

8. He ordered state hospitals to be established in every city, and physicians appointed in them. The cost of  treatment shall be borne by from the revenue of his khalisa (crown land or his own personal funds).  9. He prohibited animal slaughter on Thursdays and Sundays, as Thursday is the coronation day of Jahangir and  Sunday was the day of Akbar. 

10. He reinstated all mansabdars, appointed during Akbar’s reign, in their positions, and promoted them on  merit. 

11. He allowed Jagirs, known as aima and madadgar, granted to religious and charitable institutions to remain  with them. 

12. He ordered all the convicts, serving for longer periods, to be released from jail. 

The Dustur al-Amal Proclamation proves that Jahangir aspired to establish individual freedom and secure property  rights for his subjects. The Proclamation can be said to be his reminder to Mughal officers to serve with sincerity for  the welfare of the common people and not to oppress them. This political approach was a continuation of his father’s  political vision for the betterment of the Empire. Akbar wanted the people to always feel secure and live peacefully  under the auspices of the Mughal dominion. At the same time, the position of the Mughal aristocracy was  increasingly respected in view of the close link between the principles of Dustur al- Amal and the aristocrats’ duty to  function properly. 

Dealing with Political Threats and Internal Rebellions 

In the context of strengthening political power, Jahangir turned his attention mainly to the problem of internal  rebellion, instead of continuing Akbar’s territorial expansion and spreading Mughal influence. The rebellion which  happened in his time had to be dealt with as he would lose power if it was not quashed. When he had newly  ascended the throne, his own son, Khusraw, rebelled against him because of dissatisfaction over his coronation.  Jahangir was aware of Khusraw’s action of gathering strength in Punjab, and he sent troops to put down the  rebellion. His prompt action succeeded and Khusraw was captured, blinded and remained in prison until his death in  the year 1622AD (Faruqui, 2012; Fisher, 2016). 

Khusraw’s rebellion against Jahangir created a domino situation in the Mughal political crisis, namely, a conflict  between the Mughal State and the Sikhs. The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjun, had supported Khusraw when he  launched a rebellion against Jahangir (Richards, 2008). Jahangir saw it necessary to cut off and eliminate this  support to Khusraw. Hence, Jahangir had Guru Arjun arrested and sentenced to death. There were claims that  Jahangir’s action was religiously motivated due to difference of religions. However, the main factor was political  survival, the continuity of his reign. Guru Arjun’s support for Khusraw was a threat to Mughal political control and  sovereignty at the time. Hence, death sentence was appropriate for rebels and their allies even though it caused  deterioration in the relationship between the Mughal state and the Sikhs. According to Schimmel (1980), the death  sentence of Guru Arjun became the turning point for Sikh rebellion against the Mughal state, causing the Sikhs to  change orientation from a religious-oriented to a militant movement. 

In addition, Jahangir also faced another rebellion by his other son, Khurram (Shah Jahan). Khurram’s rebellion  followed protests against Nur Jahan’s direct interference and dominance in Mughal politics. The competition for  influence between Khurram and Nur Jahan caused Khurram to rebel against Jahangir, by his refusal to obey  Jahangir’s command to go to Kandahar and face a Safavid military attack. Upon Khurram’s refusal, Jahangir  ordered the army commander, Mahabat Khan, to fight Khurram. Jahangir’s action bore results when Khurram  admitted defeat and agreed to surrender his sons, Dara Shikuh and Awrangzib, to Jahangir as hostages. Jahangir’s  approach in demanding that Khurram’s children be placed under his custody was a precautionary measure to  monitor any move by Khurram. The children became the bait to hinder Khurram from rebelling once again.

Jahangir’s focus on dealing with rebellion restored the stability of the Mughal Empire, even if for a temporary  period. He was confronted with an external threat, namely the Safavid Empire which was constantly coveting the  frontier fortress city in Kandahar province. The Safavids began their mission to make a bid for Kandahar province in  the year 1606AD but failed due to the preparedness and prowess of the Mughal troops (Qureshi, 1984). However,  the rebellion, particularly by the Mughal royals themselves, caused Jahangir’s focus to be distracted and the Mughal power became shaky. For this reason, the Safavids took advantage of Jahangir’s distraction and annexed Kandahar  province in the year 1622AD. 

Development of Arts and Architecture 

Above all, Jahangir’s rule witnessed the rapid development of civilizational aspects such as culture, particularly, the  arts and architecture (Butron-Page, 1993). In fact, Jahangir himself was known as The Prince of Artists due to his  great interest and knowledge in appreciating the value of works of arts, among them, paintings. (Jaffar, 1972). In  addition, the field of architecture began to develop rapidly through constructing buildings characterised by the  beauty of Mughal architecture, such as mosques, mausoleums and gardens. Development in this field continued and  was said to reach its pinnacle in Shah Jahan’s rule, in building the famous Taj Mahal.

Art was also employed as a political weapon when Jahangir faced competition from Shah ‘Abbas, ruler of the  Safavid Empire. Jahangir commissioned a painting depicting the two rulers locked in an embrace on a globe.The  painting illustrated that both empires, Mughal and Safavid, were not enemies but that their leaders had brotherly ties.  This painting helped to ease the political tension between the two empires, especially with regard to competing for  power over Kandahar province, the bone of contention in their relationship (Richards, 2008). 

With regard to Mughal architecture, Jahangir turned his attention to developing and beautifying the landscape of  some cities of his transit, among them, Kabul, Ajmer and Mandu. These cities became temporary administrative  centres of Mughal rule whenever he visited them. Hence, to make these cities interesting attractions, he ordered the  building of palaces and gardens.. He also did the same in Kashmir, when he spent his vacations, by landscaping with  ponds, pavillions, fountains, river streams and flower gardens which still exist today (Richards, 2008). In addition to  his love for architectural beauty, Jahangir’s approach also used aesthetic arts in his action to indicate and strengthen  Mughal dominion in those places, particularly in frontier locations. 

Conclusion:- 

Jahangir’s rule focused more on consolidation of Mughal rule compared to his father, Akbar who pursued an  expansionist policy of Mughal territory and dominion. This led most researchers to describe Jahangir’s  achievements in administrative affairs as average and featureless with no distinctive attributes or aspects, in  comparison to Akbar’s rule that initiated various changes or reforms in political, economic and social aspects. In  Jahangir’s defence, the political situation during his rule forced him to make decisions to act, based on his abilities  and strength. Some of his actions had strengthened Mughal dominion, ensuring the continuity of Mughal rule in  India. His administrative Proclamation of Dustur al-Amal for the welfare and betterment of the people and the  Empire, using strategy and military strength in dealing with political threat and internal rebellions, as well as the  development of culture, arts and architecture in aesthetic landscaping by creating beautiful gardens and buildings in  cities, may be described as Jahangir‘s appropriate approach in order to ensure the consolidation and continuity of  Mughal dominion in India. 

Acknowledgement:- 

This study is financed by Geran Galakan Penyelidik Muda(GGPM-2021-015),Geran Universiti Penyelidikan (GUP 2019-027) and Dana Insentif Penerbitan Fakulti Pengajian Islam 2021,Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. 

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