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A Study on Economic Development Under Mughal Rule in Kashmir

Dr. Arun Kumar 

Department of Medieval & Modern History, University of Allahabad, Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, INDIA. Corresponding Author: arunshekharazad@gmail.com 

Integrated Journal for Research in Arts and Humanities

ISSN (Online): 2583-1712

Volume-3 Issue-1 || January 2023 || PP. 130-134

ABSTRACT 

The Mughal period in Kashmir emerged as a defining era, characterized by transformative socio-economic and cultural  shifts. This research delves into the multifaceted influence of the Mughal Empire on Kashmir, examining the administrative  reforms, economic prosperity, architectural marvels, and the intertwining of Mughal and Kashmiri identities. While the region thrived under the Mughals, experiencing urban growth, trade expansion, and cultural renaissance, it simultaneously grappled  with economic challenges, including high taxation, middlemen exploitation, and external threats. The study juxtaposes the region's  advancements, such as the Zabt system and the architectural legacies of emperors like Jahangir and Shah Jahan, against the  backdrop of inherent vulnerabilities and external pressures. In essence, the Mughal influence on Kashmir presents a rich tapestry  of growth, integration, challenges, and resilience, offering profound insights into the complexities of regional governance and  identity formation within a vast empire. This research serves as a comprehensive exploration of a historically significant period,  emphasizing the nuanced interplay between power, culture, and economics in shaping the destiny of a region. 

Keywords- economics, culture, administrative, Mughals, socio-economic. 

I. INTRODUCTION 

Kashmir, often eulogized as the 'Paradise on  Earth' for its breathtaking beauty, underwent profound  transformations during the Mughal era. When the Mughal  Empire, under Akbar's leadership, annexed Kashmir in  the late 16th century, it paved the way for a paradigmatic  shift in the region's economic landscape[1]. The  succeeding Mughal rulers, particularly Jahangir and Shah  Jahan, played instrumental roles in steering these  transformations. 

One of the hallmarks of this period was the  rejuvenation of agriculture. Mughal administrative genius  led to the expansion of cultivated lands, coupled with the  introduction of novel crops and advanced farming  techniques. This not only boosted the agrarian economy  but was further supplemented with their ambitious  irrigation projects. As Kashmir's fields flourished, so did  its craft and industry. The world began to take note of the  exquisite Pashmina shawls, intricately woven carpets,  delicate papier-mâché crafts, and the luxurious saffron  strands that the valley produced.

With the craft and industry sector burgeoning,  trade and commerce thrived. The geographical  positioning of Kashmir, serving as a conduit between  South Asia and Central Asia, became an avenue of  booming trade. The Mughals astutely developed a nexus  of roads, inns, and caravanserais, facilitating the  movement of goods. This not only led to an export surge  of Kashmiri products but also ushered in imports of  opulent goods and metals. 

The Mughal period was also marked by  administrative acumen. The introduction of the Zabt  system and periodic land surveys ensured systematic  revenue collection, lending transparency and efficiency to  the taxation process[2]. Alongside, the valley witnessed an  era of infrastructural splendour. The picturesque gardens  of Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh, the fortified  structures, and the bustling urban centre of Srinagar stand  testament to this. 

Yet, this era wasn't without challenges. The  valley, on occasion, grappled with famines,  administrative hurdles in its far-flung terrains, and the shadow of external invasions. But, undeniably, the Mughal imprint on Kashmir's economy was indelible,  integrating it into the broader economic matrix of the  empire while enhancing its local dynamism. 

II. AGRICULTURAL  DEVELOPMENTS 

Under the Mughal dominion, Kashmir witnessed  a notable surge in agricultural growth, turning the region  into a prosperous agrarian society. This ascendancy was a  result of various deliberate strategies and interventions  made by the Mughal administration. 

1. Expansion of Cultivated Land: Before the Mughal  intervention, vast stretches of land in Kashmir remained  fallow or underutilized. Recognizing the valley's  potential, the Mughals initiated a systematic campaign to  bring more land under cultivation. The policies included  granting land rights, providing incentives to farmers, and  ensuring protection against local feuds, which collectively  boosted agricultural productivity. 

2. Introduction of New Crops and Farming  Techniques: The Mughals introduced an array of new  crops, diversifying the agrarian output of the region. Rice,  which became a staple of Kashmir, owes its prominence  to this period. Additionally, farming techniques from  other parts of the Mughal Empire, including crop rotation  and improved irrigation methods, were introduced,  paving the way for better yields. 

3. Systematic Revenue Collection and Land  Measurement: Akbar's reign heralded the  implementation of the Zabt system, ensuring a  standardized approach to revenue collection. This system,  being meticulous, relied heavily on precise land  measurements. Officials, known as 'patwaris', were  assigned the task of measuring land and maintaining  records[3]. This systematic approach ensured fair taxation,  fostering trust between the farmers and the  administration. 

4. Irrigation Projects: Kashmir, with its rivers and  lakes, had a natural advantage for agriculture. However,  the potential wasn't fully harnessed until the Mughals  undertook extensive irrigation projects. Canals were dug,  and waterways were diverted to ensure that even the  distant fields received ample water. This, in turn, ensured consistent and bountiful harvests, irrespective of the  vagaries of the weather. 

The cumulative effect of these developments  was monumental. The once-sporadic agricultural  activities of the valley were transformed into a robust,  organized sector under the Mughals. Farmers enjoyed  better yields, the state coffers swelled with revenue, and  Kashmir, as a whole, reaped the benefits of a thriving  agrarian economy. 

III. CRAFT AND INDUSTRY 

The Mughal era was not just an epoch of political  and administrative advancements; it was a period of  cultural and artistic efflorescence, too. Under the M ughal  patronage, the craft and industry sectors of Kashmir  flourished, becoming an integral part of the region's  identity and economy. 

1. Pashmina Shawl Industry: Kashmir's Pashmina  shawls, admired for their soft texture and intricate  designs, became a sought-after luxury item across the  Mughal Empire and even reached markets in Central Asia  and Europe. These shawls, made from the fine wool of  Pashmina goats, encapsulated the artistic brilliance of  Kashmiri craftsmen[4]. Mughal emperors, particularly  Jahangir and his successors, were often depicted in  paintings donning these exquisite shawls, showcasing  their royal affinity. 

2. Papier-mâché, Carpet Weaving, and Silk  Production: Another craft that witnessed a surge was  papier-mâché, where artisans created intricate designs on  molded paper pulp, making everything from decorative  vases to jewelry boxes. Additionally, carpet weaving,  inspired by Persian motifs and techniques, gained  prominence. These carpets became synonymous with  luxury and artistry. The sericulture industry, too,  flourished with the Mughals encouraging the production  of silk textiles, adding another feather to Kashmir's  diverse craft repertoire. 

3. Development of Saffron Cultivation: While saffron  was native to Kashmir, its cultivation received a  significant impetus under the Mughal rule. The cool  climate and rich soil of regions like Pampore became  conducive for saffron farms. As the red-gold strands of  saffron began to gain popularity for their aroma and  medicinal properties, they started contributing  substantially to the local economy. 

4. Promotion of Handicrafts and Arts by Mughal  Emperors: The personal interests of Mughal emperors,  especially Jahangir, in arts and crafts played a pivotal role  in their promotion. Their patronage not only provided  economic support to artisans but also a platform to  showcase and sell their creations[5]. These royal  endorsements, combined with the meticulous skills of the  craftsmen, made Kashmiri handicrafts a hallmark of  luxury and sophistication. 

Under the Mughal canopy, the crafts and  industries of Kashmir underwent a renaissance. The  legacy of this period is still evident today, with Kashmiri  handicrafts holding a coveted position in global markets,  bearing testimony to the golden age of artisanal brilliance  during the Mughal rule. 

IV. TRADE AND COMMERCE 

The Mughal era in Kashmir was marked by a  proliferation of economic activities, with trade and  commerce emerging as significant drivers of prosperity.  Enhanced by the region's strategic positioning and further  bolstered by the Mughal administrative strategies, the  avenues of trade blossomed, connecting Kashmir to the  wider world in unprecedented ways[6].

1. Kashmir's Strategic Location: Nestled between  South Asia and Central Asia, Kashmir enjoyed a  geographical advantage that made it a crossroads for  traders, pilgrims, and scholars alike. This bridge-like  positioning between major civilizations rendered the  region a thriving hub for trade, facilitating the exchange  of goods, culture, and ideas. 

2. Development of Road Networks and Caravanserais: To bolster commerce, the Mughals undertook  infrastructural developments. Road networks were  expanded and improved, connecting remote parts of the  valley to major trading centers. Caravanserais, or resting  places for traveling merchants and their caravans, were  built at strategic intervals. These not only provided shelter  and safety but also became bustling markets where goods  were exchanged and deals struck. 

3. Export of Handicrafts, Dried Fruits, Medicinal  Herbs, and Saffron: Kashmiri products began to find  audiences far and wide. Handcrafted items, especially  Pashmina shawls and carpets, were in demand in markets  spanning from Delhi to Damascus. Additionally, dried  fruits from the valley, known for their quality, were  exported extensively[7]. The medicinal herbs, nurtured by  the region’s unique ecology, and the prized saffron  strands found buyers in both domestic and international  markets. 

4. Import of Luxury Goods, Metals, and Other  Materials: While Kashmir became an export powerhouse,  it was also a recipient of a myriad of imported goods.  Luxury items from Persia, Central Asia, and even Europe  made their way into the valley. Metals, essential for the  local craft industry, textiles, and other materials were  imported, enriching the local markets and catering to the  tastes of the Mughal elites residing in or visiting the  region. 

The blend of strategic policies, Kashmir’s  inherent resource richness, and its geographical  positioning culminated in an era where trade wasn't just  an economic activity but also a cultural exchange. The  Mughal period, thus, didn't just embed economic  prosperity but also sowed the seeds for a cosmopolitan  environment, where ideas, goods, and crafts flowed  seamlessly, crafting a rich tapestry of interconnectedness. 

V. TAXATION AND REVENUE  SYSTEM 

The consolidation of Mughal rule in Kashmir  brought with it a series of administrative reforms, central  to which was the restructuring of the taxation and revenue  system. This system was not just about financial accrual  but also signified a structured governance model,  enhancing efficiency and fairness in revenue collection. 

1. Introduction of the Zabt System: One of Akbar's  most significant administrative reforms was the  introduction of the Zabt system—a standardized land  revenue system. Unlike the arbitrary tax impositions of  previous reigns, the Zabt system was based on careful   assessment, taking into account the land's fertility, type,  and produce[8]. This ensured a more equitable and  consistent method of tax imposition, ensuring farmers  were neither overburdened nor the state coffers  underfilled. 

2. Periodic Surveys for Accurate Land Measurements: To support the Zabt system, regular surveys were  conducted to measure the land accurately. This  meticulous approach was crucial to ascertain the correct  tax amounts. Landholders, or zamindars, were made  accountable for providing accurate information, which  was then cross-verified by the state-appointed officials.  This periodic updating of records ensured that the data  remained relevant and reflective of the actual conditions. 

3. Establishment of a Transparent System to Collect  Taxes: The Mughal administration brought about a  departure from oppressive tax-collecting practices, which  often led to exploitation and corruption. Instead, they  instituted a transparent and accountable system. Local  officials, or amils, were assigned the task of collecting  taxes and were answerable to higher authorities, ensuring  a layer of oversight. This not only reduced malpractices  but also built trust among the populace, leading to more  willing compliance. 

The revamped taxation and revenue system  under the Mughals marked a period of bureaucratic  efficiency and fairness. By streamlining processes,  introducing systems of accountability, and ensuring a  rational approach based on actual land value and produce,  the Mughals laid the foundation for a stable and  prosperous Kashmir. This stability, in turn, further  bolstered the economic growth and prosperity of the  region during their reign. 

VI. INFRASTRUCTURE AND  URBAN DEVELOPMENT 

The Mughal imprint on Kashmir is not just seen  in its commerce or crafts, but also vividly reflected in its  urban landscapes and infrastructural edifices. The region,  under Mughal leadership, experienced an unprecedented  phase of infrastructural and urban transformation,  underscoring the empire's vision for holistic development. 1. Creation of Majestic Gardens and Architectural  Marvels: Mughal emperors, especially Jahangir, held a  deep affection for the scenic beauty of Kashmir. This  admiration gave birth to some of the most iconic Mughal  gardens in the region, such as Shalimar Bagh and Nishat  Bagh. Characterized by their terraced layouts, flowing  water channels, and ornate pavilions, these gardens  became spaces of leisure, reflection, and were often used  as royal retreats. 

2. Fortifications and Defensive Structures: Recognizing the strategic importance of Kashmir, the  Mughals embarked on strengthening its defense  capabilities. Forts and fortified structures were erected or  renovated across the valley. These infrastructures not only  served as military bastions but also became centres of  administration and governance. 

3. Development of Srinagar as an Urban Centre: Srinagar, the heart of Kashmir, underwent significant  urban expansion during the Mughal rule. The city's  infrastructure was enhanced with better roads, bridges,  markets, and public spaces[9]. The establishment of  bustling bazaars and trading hubs turned Srinagar into a  vital nexus of commerce, culture, and governance. 

4. Road Networks and Communication: Understanding the essence of connectivity for trade,  governance, and defence, the Mughals invested heavily in  developing a comprehensive road network. These roads,  often lined with trees for shade, connected remote parts of  the valley to major trading and administrative centres.  Additionally, inns and caravanserais were established  along these routes, facilitating smooth travel for  merchants, officials, and other travellers. 

The Mughal period in Kashmir stands out not  just for its cultural and economic renaissance but also for  the infrastructural metamorphosis it ushered in. By  interweaving nature, aesthetics, and utility, the Mughals  fashioned a Kashmir that was both enchanting in its  beauty and robust in its urban and infrastructural  framework. This era laid the foundation for the region's  future growth, blending the ethereal charm of the valley  with the pragmatic needs of an evolving society. 

VII. ROLE OF MUGHAL EMPERORS 

The Mughal intervention in Kashmir was not just  a tale of territorial conquest, but also a narrative of socio cultural and economic integration. Several Mughal  emperors played pivotal roles in reshaping and  influencing the region's trajectory, embedding their  distinct legacies in the annals of Kashmir's history. 1. Akbar's Annexation and Administrative  Integration: Akbar, the third Mughal emperor, annexed  Kashmir in 1586, incorporating it into his vast empire.  Beyond mere territorial expansion, Akbar's approach was  holistic. He introduced administrative reforms, such as the  aforementioned Zabt system, bringing Kashmir's  governance in line with the rest of the empire. His policies  aimed at ensuring justice and efficient administration,  thereby creating a harmonious coexistence between the  Mughals and the native populace. 

2. Jahangir's Enchantment with Kashmir's Beauty: Jahangir's love for Kashmir is perhaps best encapsulated  in his famous quote: "If there is a paradise on earth, it is  here, it is here, it is here." He frequented the valley,  drawing solace from its serene landscapes. Under his  patronage, numerous gardens and architectural wonders  were erected, reflecting both the region's natural beauty  and the Mughal architectural prowess. 

3. Shah Jahan's Architectural Legacy: Known for his  architectural inclinations, as evident from the Taj Mahal,  Shah Jahan continued the tradition of infrastructural  development in Kashmir. His reign saw the construction  

and enhancement of various structures, blending Persian  aesthetics with Kashmiri craftsmanship. He fortified  Srinagar and encouraged the growth of urban centres,  infusing the region with Mughal grandeur. 

4. Aurangzeb's Religious Policies: Aurangzeb's reign  brought about a different kind of influence. He was more  orthodox in his Islamic beliefs, and his policies reflected  a stronger inclination towards Islamic practices. While his  reign ensured continued administrative attention to  Kashmir, it also marked a period of increased religious  discourse, with an emphasis on aligning the region's  practices with Mughal orthodoxy. 

The reign of each Mughal emperor over Kashmir  left a distinctive mark on its socio-cultural,  administrative, and economic landscape. Collectively,  their roles not only shaped the region's integration into the  larger Mughal empire but also influenced its unique  identity, interweaving Mughal ethos with Kashmir's  indigenous charm. Their legacies, though varied,  highlight the multifaceted engagement of the Mughals  with the ethereal valley of Kashmir. 

VIII. ECONOMIC CHALLENGES 

While the Mughal era in Kashmir witnessed a  surge in trade, crafts, and overall economic prosperity, it  was not devoid of challenges. The Mughal's expansive  empire, interspersed with diverse territories, meant that  governance was a complex task, and this complexity had  economic implications for regions like Kashmir. 

1. High Taxation: Despite the implementation of the  Zabt system, which aimed for an equitable approach to  taxation, there were instances of excessive tax  impositions. Periodic famines, floods, or other natural  calamities often rendered the land unproductive.  However, the state machinery sometimes failed to adjust  tax demands accordingly, placing a significant burden on  the peasantry. 

2. Middlemen Exploitation: With the rise in trade and  craft industries, a system of middlemen emerged. These  middlemen often exploited artisans by buying their  products at minimal prices and selling them at much  higher rates in urban centers or outside the region. This  disparity meant that while Kashmiri products gained  fame, the artisans themselves remained relatively  marginalized. 

3. Uneven Development: While cities like Srinagar  witnessed urban growth and development, many rural  areas in the region lagged. The focus of the Mughal  emperors was often more on urban centres, which led to a  certain level of economic disparity between urban and  rural zones. 

4. Reliance on Agriculture: Despite the growth of  crafts and trade, a significant portion of Kashmir's  economy still relied on agriculture. This over-dependence  made the region vulnerable to natural calamities.  Unpredictable weather patterns, floods, or pests could  lead to crop failures, impacting the overall economic  stability of the area. 

5. External Threats and Invasion: Kashmir's strategic  location made it a prized possession, and thus, it often  faced external threats. Periodic invasions or threats  thereof disrupted trade routes, discouraged investments,  and sometimes resulted in material damage, all of which  posed challenges to the region's economic prosperity. 

While the Mughal rule brought in administrative  reforms, infrastructure development, and cultural  integration, it could not entirely insulate Kashmir from  inherent economic challenges. These challenges serve as  a reminder that while empires can influence regional  trajectories significantly, they cannot always mitigate  inherent or emerging vulnerabilities. 

IX. CONCLUSION 

The Mughal era in Kashmir stands out as a  transformative period, melding the region's socio economic, cultural, and administrative landscape. While  it ushered in unprecedented prosperity, innovation, and  integration, it was not without its share of challenges. The  meticulous administrative reforms, the flourishing of arts  and crafts, the vibrancy of trade, and the architectural  marvels contrasted with the economic hurdles faced by  artisans, farmers, and traders. 

Kashmir, under the Mughals, became a melting  pot of indigenous traditions and Mughal influences,  resulting in a rich tapestry of shared culture and history.  The legacies left behind by the Mughal emperors, from  Akbar's administrative acumen to Jahangir's enamorment  with the valley's beauty, shaped Kashmir in myriad ways.  Yet, the challenges of the era, be it excessive taxation,  exploitation, or external threats, underscore the  complexities of governance and the delicate balance of  growth and equity. In retrospect, the Mughal period in Kashmir  serves as a testament to the dynamic interplay of power,  

culture, economics, and regional identity. It offers  invaluable insights into the possibilities and pitfalls of  empire-building and regional integration, painting a  multifaceted portrait of a region in flux, forever weaving  its past into the tapestry of its present and future. 

REFERENCES 

[1] Badauni, Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh, II, p. 352; see  also, Ippolito Desideri, An Account of Tibet: The Travels  of Ippolito Desideri 1712-1727,(Hereafter: Desideri, An  Account of Tibet)Tranlation and Edited by Flippo de  Flippi, with an introduction by C. Wessels, Asian  Educational Service, New Delhi, 1995, p. 73. 

[2] Abdul Ahad, Kashmir to Frankfurt, Rima Publishing  House, Delhi, 1987p.11. 

[3] Jahangir, Jahangirnama, translated into English by  Major David Price, Rare Books, New Delhi, 1918, p.215. [4] Jadaunath Sarkar, Mughal Administration, 5th  

edition, M.C. Sarkar and Sons, Calcutta, 1963, p. 9. [5] J. Irwin, The Kashmir Shawl, Victoria and Albert  Museum, Marg Publications, London, 1973, p. 121.  [6] Jahangir, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, (Hereafter: Tuzuk)  translated into English by Allexander Rogers and edited  by Henry Beveridge, 2 volumes, Low Price Publications,  Delhi, 1909 – 1914, Vol. I, p. 384 

[7] Bernier, Travels in the Mughal Empire A.D 1656- 1668, (Hereafter: Bernier, Travels) Translated, on the  basis of Irvin Block‟s version and annoted by Archibald  Constable, 1891, pp. 402-03. 

[8] Alexander Cunningham, Ladak, Physical, Statistical  and Historical, Allen and Co., London, 1854, p. 239. [9] Abdul Hamid Lahori, Badshahnama, edited Abd-al Rahim and W. N. Lees, Bib. Ind. 2 volumes, Calcutta,  1867-68, vol. II, part-I, p. 404; Hassan Koihami, Tarikh i-Hasan, MS. No. 04, Research and Publication Division,  Srinagar, Vol. I, ff. 132b, 148a


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