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Mughalkingdom in India According to Hamkas Sejarah Umat Islam

By : Hakim Zainal


 
ISSN2320-540IntJAdv. Res. 9(11), 970-978
 
 
 JournaHomepage:-
Article DOI:
10.21474/IJAR01/13830
DOI URL:
 http://dx.doi.org/10.21474/IJAR01/13830
RESEARCH ARTICLE
MUGHALKINGDOM
IN INDIA ACCORDING TO HAMKA’S
SEJARAH UMAT ISLAMMohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan Ashari
1
, Mohd Roslan Mohd Nor
2
, Nursafira Lubis Safian
3
, Mohd HafizSafiai
4
, Hakim Zainal
1
 and Ezad Azraai Jamsari
1
 
1.
 
Research Centre for Arabic Language and Islamic Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies, UniversitiKebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.2.
 
Department of Islamic History and Civilization, Academy of Islamic Studies, Universiti Malaya, 50603KualaLumpur, Malaysia.3.
 
Department of Arabic Language and Literature, KIRKHS, International Islamic University of Malaysia, JalanGombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.4.
 
Research Centre for Sharia, Faculty of Islamic Studies& Institute of Islam Hadhari, Universiti KebangsaanMalaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………....
  ManuscripInfo Abstract
…………………….
 
………………………………………………………………
 
 Manuscript History
Received: 29 September 2021Final Accepted: 31 October 2021Published: November 2021
Key words:-
Hamka, The Mughals, India, IslamicHistory,
Sejarah Umat Islam
 
India is important in the study of Islamic history and civilizationresearch as it was one of the earliest territories that received Islamic preaching and was the site for various Islamic kingdoms until the year1857. The achievements of Islamic civilization in India, particularlyduring the Mughal era, added sparkle to the glory of Islamic history.For this reason, the facts relating the Mughal Kingdom in India have been discussed in writings on Islamic history and civilization, includingthe book,
Sejarah Umat Islam
, by Hamka. The purpose of this article is
to study Hamka’s work on the history of the Mughal Kingdom in India
and analyse the narration and discussion he submitted. This researchadopts a qualitative approach using historial study and content analysisto gather and analyse data. Research results find that Hamka had theinterest and knowledge in writing Islamic history by describing Muslimsocieties and Islamic states from their inception to their end, includingthe Mughal Kingdom in India. In his narrative of Mughal history,Hamka inserted the element of teaching or
ibrah
 (lesson), particularlywhen discussing the time of Mughal decline. The narrative approach isconsistent with the philosophy of Islamic history that stresses on the
ibrah
 concept
, which was meaningful to Hamka’s own personality as a
missionary. Hence, his work,
SejarahUmatIslam
, proved Hamka’s
ability to discuss Islamic history, and simultaneously resonated withreaders interested in issues of Islamic history
Copy Right, IJAR, 2021,. All rights reserved.
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Introduction:-
India was one of the earliest territories to receive Islamic preaching and was also under the dominion of variousIslamic kingdomsfor a long time. A military expedition led by Muhammad ibn al-Qasim in the year 710 was thestarting point for the spread of Islam to the regions of the Indian sub-continent. The spread of this religion wassupported by the existence of various Islamic rulers in the regions, beginning from the Umayyad era and ending with
 
Corresponding Author:- Mohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan Ashari
Address
:-
Research Centre for Arabic Language and Islamic Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies,Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.

supported by the existence of various Islamic rulers in the regions, beginning from the Umayyad era and ending with  

 

Corresponding Author:- Mohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan Ashari  

Address:- Research Centre for Arabic Language and Islamic Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies,  Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia. 

ISSN: 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res. 9(11), 970-978 

the Mughal era in the year 1857. Although India was conquered by foreign invaders, the impact of Islamic  civilization can still be seen today, such as the buildingsof themagnificent Taj Mahal, Qutub Minar and Fort Agra.  


However, Islamic history of India would be incomplete without discussing Mughal history. Hence, most historical  works, in various languages, included Mughal history in the main discussion of the whole Islamic history in India.  Among Malay works which also discuss Mughal history is Sejarah Umat Islam by Haji Abdul Malik Karim  Amrullah, or known as Hamka. In discussing history in his work, he used the research method, area studies, by  dividing into sections, discussion of Islamic history based on regions or continents, beginning with pre-Islamic  Arabian Peninsula until the spread of Islam in the Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). The writing of this book proved  Hamka’s deep interest and proficiency in writing Islamic history and civilization, thus adding to the collection of  Malay works in this field  

Writing about Mughal Kingdom in India 

There are various sources, in English and Malay, which discuss Mughal history. Among them are by Agrawal  (2000), Ali (1997), Burn (1987), Chaudary (1987), Dalrymple (2006), al-Faqi (2002), Naqvi (1977), Naved (2010),  Qamaruddin (2004), Schimmel (2005), Sharma (1988), Reeve (2012), Fisher (2016) and Truschke (2017). In these  sources, discussion not only touch on the development of the Mughal Kingdom, beginning from its establishment  phase to the decline, but also focus on intellectual, arts, economic and administrative issues, and about each of the  Mughal rulers.  

Malay sources also did not miss out on discussing Mughal history in India. One of them by Ishak (1992) discusses  Islamic history in India chronologically, beginning from the advent of Islam advent to the fall of the Mughal  Kingdom. Mughal history is discussed in one chapter, for the Mughal era 1526-1763. Ishak intentionally selected the  year 1763 as the limit for discussing Mughal history even though most other references prefered the period 1707- 1857 as Mughal decline and ending. This was because Ishak (1992: 72) inserted the discussion relating to the islah 

(reformist) figure, Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi, who passed away in the year 1763. The discussion about the latter  figure was deemed important as his efforts to restore the true Islamic teachings were perceived as a reaction to the  Mughal Kingdom’s decline starting in the year 1707 after the demise of Awrangzeb.  

Likewise, Sejarah Islam, authored by Yahaya and Halimi (1993: 447-527), also discuss Mughal history in India. A  specific chapter, entitled Islam in India, narrates the development of Islam in the region, beginning from the spread  of Islam to the era of Mughal weakness, particularly after the demise of Awrangzeb in the year 1707. Discussion of  Mughal history covers the development of the kingdom under each of the rulers beginning from the time of Babur  until Awrangzeb. Discussion in this book becomes more interesting when the issue of Mughal achievements was  included. The Mughal era is acknowledged as the golden age of Islam in India as during this time the intellectual  field had rapidly developed. In addition, the architecture field reached its peak in Mughal era (Yahaya & Halimi  1993: 515). Due to such statements, Mughal Kingdom in India is selected as research subject to specifically study  Hamka’s discussion of Mughal history and civilization in his book, Sejarah Umat Islam.  

 

Bakar (2000: v-vii) also discussed Islamic history and civilization in India, including the Mughal reign covering the  time of Babur until Awrangzeb, with focus on Mughal military expeditions. This is evident in the discussion mostly  covering war events, such the Battle of Panipat, wars between the Mughals and Hindu kingdoms, and wars between  the Mughal royals themselves (Bakar 2000: 167-245). In addition, this book also presents the factors for the fall of  the Mughals (Bakar 2000: 245-249). In a cursory discussion of Mughal history by Thohir and Kusdiana (2006: 83- 102), focus is on each ruler’s reign, from Babur to Awrangzeb. The history presented revolves around Mughal  political development such as territorial expansion and wars. Meanwhile, Nor and Ashari (2017) analysed the  Mughal political crisis, specifically during Shah Jahan’s rule.  

There is an article by Ashari et al. (2013) relating to history of Islam in India. This article does not specifically  discuss Mughal history, focusing more on the history of Islam in India in the early and medieval centuries. However,  the issue analysed may be the subject of research as the article is an attempt to explore the history of Islam in India  based on authentic history books. The research corpus for the article is al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh by Ibn al-Athir.  

Book reviews of Hamka’s Sejarah Umat Islam have been writtenrecently. One of them was by Ashari and Jamsari  (2010) in which Hamka was described as a writer and scholar who mastered many fields of knowledge, including  Islamic history. This statement is based on his writing the book Sejarah Umat Islam which displayed historical 

 

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events beginning from Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) Arabia to the Islamic states in the Nusantara (Malay Archipelago).  Hamka described historical events not only in big Islamic states, but also involved various duwaylat (statelets),  including the Marinid state in al-Maghrib region (Ashari & Jamsari 2010: 229-237). The process of establishing and  developing the Marinid state in al-Maghrib is one of the issues discussed by Hamka in his work. Another review by  Jamsari et al. (2011) is focused on the history of Islamic states in al-Andalus in Hamka’s Sejarah Umat Islam. The  review finds that Hamka had divided his discussion of Islamic states in al-Andalus into two parts, namely, the  Umayyad and Muluk al-Tawa’if eras. According to Hamka, the Umayyad reign in al-Andalus was divided into three  eras, namely al-Wulah, al-Imarah and al-Khilafah, and enjoyed its golden age during the rule of Caliph ‘Abd al 

Rahman al-Nasir. In contrast, Muluk al-Tawa’if rule witnessed chaos in al-Andalus (Jamsari et al. 2011: 170-171).  The writers’ later review clearly proved that Hamka had a deep interest and proficiency in producing his work on  Islamic history. Historical narration based on area grouping facilitates the reader’s understanding of Islamic history.  Incidentally, the regions of the Indian sub-continent are also discussed in Hamka’s work Sejarah Umat Islam, thus  this article aims to study part of the Islamic history in India by focusing on the Mughal era.  

The purpose of this article is to study Hamka’s writing about Mughal history in India. The aim of this research is to  critically understand Hamka’s display and discussion relating to Mughal history submitted in his work. This  research is by design qualitative in approach using historical study as a method of gathering and analysing data. The  historical method was used to collect data with focus on Hamka’s work, Sejarah Umat Islam, while data analysis  was done using descriptive historical interpretation method by presenting the main issues of Mughal history  discussed in his work.  



Biography of Hamka  

His name was Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah, better known as Hamka. He was born at Kampung Molek,  Maninjau, Sumatera Barat on 17th February 1908 and passed away in Jakarta on 24th July 1981 (Yaakob 2012, 1:74;  Mahmudah 2017: 90, Arbain 2017: 77; Steenbrink 1994). Other writings state that Hamka’s date of birth was 18th February 1908 (Shobahussurur 1430H: 82). He is remembered as a writer, preacher, scholar and political activist.  He was also given the title Buya, a nickname by the Minangkabau society, which means father or someone revered.  His father, Shaykh Abdul Karim bin Amrullah, or better known as Haji Rasul, was one of the pioneers of the tajdid movement in Minangkabau after returning from Mecca in the year 1906.  

Hamka received his primary education up to standard two at the Sekolah Dasar Maninjau. At age ten years, his  father established Sumatera Thawalib at Padang Panjang. There, he attended religious studies and Arabic language.  He became a religious teacherin the year 1927 at Perkebunan Tebing Tinggi, Medan and then moved to Padang  Panjang in the year 1929. Later, Hamkawas appointed as lecturer at Universiti Islam, Jakarta and Universiti  Muhammadiyah, Padang Panjang from 1957 to 1958. After that, he was appointed as Rector of Perguruan Tinggi  Islam, Jakarta and thenas Professor of Universiti Mustopo, Jakarta.  

Hamka was an active member of the Islamic movement, Kumpulan Muhammadiyah. According to Kanafi et al.  (2021), Muhammadiyah, an Ahli Sunnah Waljamaahorganization, was formed in the year 1912. Hamka joined  Muhammadiyah in the year 1925 to oppose khurafat, bid‘ah, tarekatandheresy at Padang Panjang. In the year 1929,  Hamka established a Muhammadiyah preacher training centre and was selected as Muhammadiyah consul at  Makassar two years later. Then, he was selected as the head of Muhammadiyah Leadership Council in West  Sumatra by the Muhammadiyah Conference, replacing S.Y. Sultan Mangkuto in the year 1946. In the year 1953,  Hamka was selected as Adviser of Pusat Muhammadiyah. On the 26th July 1977, Indonesian Minister of Religions,  Prof. Dr. Mukti Ali appointed Hamka as General Chairman of Majlis Ulama Indonesia (Council of Indonesian  Religious Scholars), but he later resigned in the year 1981 because his advice was ignored by the Indonesian  government.  

Hamka’s political activities began in the year 1925 when he joined Partai Politik Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union  Party) (Zuhaidi & Lubis 2021: 74-82). In the year 1945, he assisted in the struggle against the Colonial Dutch  through his speeches and joined guerilla activity in the jungle in Medan. In the year 1947, Hamka was appointed as  Chief of Barisan Pertahanan Nasional Indonesia (National Defence Front of Indonesia). He became a member of  Masyumi (Council of Muslim Indonesian Associations)and the main speaker in the 1955 General Election. Later,  Masyumi was banned by the Indonesian government in the year 1960. From 1964 until 1966, Hamka was  imprisoned by President Sukarno on the charge of being pro-Malaysian. While in prison, he wrote Tafsir al Azharwhich turned out to be his greatest scholarly work.Upon release from prison, he was appointed as member of 

 

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Badan Musyawarah Kebajikan Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian National Welfare Consultative Body), Majlis  Perjalanan Haji Indonesia (Indonesian Pilgrimage Council)and Lembaga Kebudayaan Nasional Indonesia  (Indonesian National Culture Board).  

Besides his religious and political activities, Hamka was a journalist, writer, editor and publisher. Since the 1920’s,  he became a journalist for some newspapers such asPelita Andalas, Seruan Islam, Bintang IslamandSeruan  Muhammadiyah. In the year 1928, he was editor for the magazine, Kemajuan Masyarakat. Then in the year 1932, he  was appointed as editor and published al-Mahdimagazine in Makassar. Hamka was also editor of the  magazines,Pedoman Masyarakat, Panji MasyarakatandGema Islam. Hamka was a prolific writer of Islamic  scholarly as well as creative works such as novels and short stories. His greatest scholarly contribution is a 4-volume  interpretation, Tafsir al-Azhar. His novels attracted public attention and became literature textbooks in Malaysia and  Singapore, such asTenggelamnya Kapal Van Der Wijck, Di Bawah Lindungan KaabahandMerantau ke Deli.  

Hamka also received in his lifetime national and international awards, such as an Honorary Doctorate from al-Azhar  University in the year 1958, Honorary Doctorate from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM, The National  University of Malaysia) in the year 1974 and the titles, Datuk Indonoas well as Pengeran Wirogunofrom the  Indonesian Government. Hamka passed away on 24th July 1981. However, his service to society will always be  remembered and his influence is felt even today, for dignifying the status of Islam, and he will always be honoured  as a prominent scholar and writer in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore (Ashari &Jamsari 2010: 232).  

According to some researchers’ notes, Hamka produced as many 103 works of diverse genres, such as  autobiography, biography, Islamic philosophy and knowledge, tradition and sociology, travel journal, translation,  tafsir (interpretation), history and novel. Out of this number, about 14 are literary works (novel) successfully written  by him (Hashim 2016: 4). Other researchers hold the opinion that he authored 113 books in his lifetime (Aziz 2009,  10:124). This proved and earned him the reputation as a prolific writer of diverse genres. Some of his works are  Tasawuf Moderen, Falsafah Hidup, Lembaga Budi, Kenang-kenangan Hidup, Sejarah Umat Islam, Keadilan Sosial  dalam Islam and Tafsir al-Azhar.  

His Work, Sejarah Umat Islam 

The writing of this book by Hamka took him a duration of 22 years to complete, beginning from the year 1939 until  1961. It elaborated on the history of Muslims beginning from Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) Arabia to the development of  Islam in the Malay World. Hamka (2018: 1) had stated that this book would take a long time to complete due to the  rising cost of paper at the time. In addition, his pre-occupation with the struggle to fill Indonesia’s independence  with the call of Islam and his other writings in diverse fields delayed the publication of Sejarah Umat Islam.  

This work is divided into four volumes. The first volume discusses the circumstances and environment in the  Arabian Peninsula, the terrain, demography, earth produce, social practice and lifestyle of Jahliyah society. In  addition, this volume also discusses the environment of Arabia during the Prophet Muhammad’s PBUH time in  Mecca, and later in Medina (Hamka 2018: 1-2). The second volume discusses the reign of the Khulafa’ al-Rashidin (Rightly Guided Caliphs), Umayyad rule, Abbasid rule, and Islamic kingdoms in the Maghreb (Northern Africa) and  al-Andalus. Among the matters discussed are the futuhat al-Islamiyyah movement, wars between the Muslim armies  and Romans as well as Persians, political opposition, the Crusades, and clashes between the Muslims and Christians  in al-Andalus (Hamka 2018: 2-3).  

The third volume discusses the expansion process of Islamic state dominion to the eastern region, including Persia,  Afghanistan and India. The Islamic sovereignties which were once established in this region were the Ghaznavid,  Ghurid, Delhi and Mughal Kingdoms (Hamka 2018: 3-4). The fourth volume discusses the history of Islam in the  Malay World. Hamka’s book discusses the topic of Islamic Malay kingdoms which includes Samudera-Pasai,  Melaka, Acheh, Johor, Demak, Mataram, Bantam in Java Island as well Ternate in the Maluku Islands. According to  Hamka (2018: 4), the fourth volume is the heaviest compared to the rest because there was no available structured  written sources of Islamic history in the Nusantara at the time of writing this volume. For this volume, he cited much  information from several classical sources such as Sejarah Melayu, Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai, Tuhfat al-NafisSejarah Cheribon, Babad Gianti and Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa. He collected materials from his travels  throughout Indonesia, Tanah Melayu (Peninsular Malaya), Brunei and Sarawak. In addition, he obtained materials  from state governments as historical materials were mostly not printed yet and kept in palace archives. The Malay  state rulers who availed historical materials to him were Seri Paduka Sultan Siak Seri Inderapura (1940), Sultan 

 

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Terengganu (1955), Sultan Perak (1958), Aru Mappanyukki Raja Bone (1955), Raja Gowa (1956), Tengku Ahmad  Tajuddin Ibni Sultan Kedah and Sultan Brunei (1960). Further, he also obtained materials from the Dutch and  English to make comparisons with Malay historical records obtained from the Malay rulers (Hamka 1980; Ashari &  Jamsari 2010: 235).  

Although his work has its merits, in terms of compilation and discussion of historical issues, it also has its  shortcoming, specifically in the use of sources as reference. It is not stated in the preface the sources used by him in  writing the history of Islam, particularly in the Middle East region, beginning from the time of the Prophet  Muhammad PBUH until the Ottoman era. However, this shortcoming does not at all affect his presentation when  writing his work, Sejarah Umat Islam. This work can still be used as reference to obtain an early impression of an  Islamic rulers and kingdom in a region.  

Mughal Kingdom of India in Sejarah Umat Islam 

Hamka divided discussion of Mughal history in India into two phases. The first phase covers the period 1526 to  1707. This era began from the founding of the Mughal Kingdom by Babur until the end of its golden age under  Awrangzeb rule. The second phase covers the decline and weakening of the Mughal Kingdom, beginning from  Awrangzeb’s demise in the year 1707 until its fall to the English in the yera 1857.  

1. First Phase (1526-1707)  

Discussion of the first phase begins about the Mughal founder, Babur. Hamka took the opportunity to praise the  Mughal Kingdom in India with the statement that the kingdom was among the unforgettable pride of Islam,  analogous to a gem in the records of Islamic history, similar to the Umayyads in al-Andalus, the Abbasids in  Baghdad and the Ottomans in Eastern Europe (Hamka 2018: 500). Such a statement is due to the glorious  civilizations of the said regions which developed during their rule. In addition, Hamka also briefly stated that the  Mughal ruler, Babur, was of Turko-Mongol lineage, from Timurlane on the paternal side, and from Genghis Khan  on the maternal side (Hamka 2018: 501). This was probably to prove Babur, highly regarded as a great Mughal war  commander in history, was also of noble and heroic bloodline.  

Hamka continued with records of Babur’s heroism with a description of how he tried to conquer some areas near  Iran in the year 1497 when he was still in his teens. Despite losing in fighting against Muhammad Khan Shaybani,  the ruler of Bukhara, and retreating to Afghanistan, he continued his efforts to conquer other regions, among them  Kabul and Kandahar, in the year 1504. Hamka viewed Babur’s control over the two regions as the entryway for Babur to dominate India (Hamka 2018: 501). Babur carried out his military expedition to India in the year 1525 with  a strength of 13,000 fighters. The expedition succeeded in capturing Punjab region and advanced next to Delhi,  administrative centre of the Delhi Sultanate, ruled by Ibrahim Lodi II. Ibrahim Lodi commanded his army of  100,000 soldiers with 1,000 elephants to resist Babur and his men in the Battle of Panipat on 21st April 1526.  Despite Ibrahim Lodi’s bigger army, Babur’s fighters did not experience a major difficulty in winning that historic  war. According to Hamka (2018: 502), Babur’s victory was supported by using cannons and weapons that Ibrahim  Lodi’s army did not posssess. As a result of the victory, Babur departed for Delhi and proclaimed himself as ruler of  India.  

Discussion in the first phase continued with the era of Humayun, Babur’s prince. After Humayun ascended the  throne, he made efforts to deal with his competitors, namely, Sultan Mahmud Lodi based at Aud, Bahadur Shah at  Gujerat and Sher Khan at Chunar. Initially, Humayun overcame them, but Sher Khan did not give up and re organized his military force. So the battle between them resumed at Boksar in the year 1535, which saw Humayun  defeated. A second battle between them took place in the year 1540 at Kanauj, that resulted in a worse defeat for  Humayun. Humayun was forced to retreat, seeking political asylum and military reinforcement from the Safavid  Kingdom. His requests were granted, and with Safavid military assistance, Humayun dominated the regions one by  one, among them, Kandahar (1545) and Kabul (1550).  

Humayun then went on his mission to capture Delhi on learning that Sher Khan had passed away in the year 1545,  leaving the kingdom in a fractured state. Humayun took the opportunity of leading a 15,000-strong cavalry,  advancing toward Delhi. Sher Khan’s successor, Iskandar Shah led an 80,000-strong army to intercept Humayun’s  invasion. Hence, they fought at Sirhind Valley, located between Delhi and Lahore. Humayun’s preparedness, and  his courageous and well-equipped cavalry defeated Iskandar Shah and his bigger army in the year 1555. This victory 

 

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restored Humayun’s dignity after he was deprived of his throne for 13 years and also reinstated Mughal dynasty as  ruler in India. However, he did not continue to rule long as he passed away the following year (Hamka 2018: 505).  

Next, Hamka continued discussing Mughal history during Akbar’s era. Akbar was quite unschooled, hence  functionally illiterate, as he was forced to rule at a young age of 15 years. Throughout his reign, he was assisted by  the Prime Minister, Bayram Khan. Initially, Akbar was forced to confront Hemu’s army who tried again to destroy  Mughal power. Hemu’s 100,000 strong army with 500 elephants invaded Delhi causing Akbar to retreat with his  army to Punjab. There, Akbar and Bayram Khan re-organised their 20,000 strong army to confront Hemu’s army at  Panipat Vallley. In the battle, Akbar’s army gained victory after Hemu was killed in the battlefield, causing chaos  for his soldiers as their leader had died. This victory established Akbar’s leadership as the legitimate Mughal ruler in  India (Hamka 2018: 506). From that time, Akbar continued his mission to expand Mughal dominion with the  purpose of uniting India under the Mughal Kingdom. Initially, he sent emissaries to Hindu kings and requested them  to submit to Mughal authority. Various feedbacks were received from the Hindu kings, some accepted conditionally  and others strongly opposed. Hence, Akbar used the military approach to confront those who refused to submit,  namely, Raja of Gwalior in the year 1558, Raja of Ajmer (1560), Raja of Mewar (1567) and Raja of Kalingar  (1569).  

After Akbar dominated the Hindu regions, he then turned his attention to Muslim kingdoms in India. He launched  military expeditions to conquer the regions of Gujerat (1573), Bengal (1580), Kashmir (1586) and Sind (1592). Then  he conquered the entire Deccan region in the year 1600 after spending five long years attempting to do so. His army  met with fierce opposition from Ahmadnagar’s army led by Sultanah Shandah, also known as Baidaa-i Dekan. Her  demise in the year 1600 opened the opportunity for Akbar to conquer Deccan region (Hamka 2018: 509).  

Hamka explained some of the reforms that Akbar implemented. One of them was the restructuring of al-Wizarah  system. Akbar did not rule single-handedly but was assisted by ministers of diverse ethnicity and religion, such as  Persian, Turkish and Hindu. In Akbar’s reign, the office of Prime Minister was known as Vakil-us-Sultanat (Representative of the Ruler) while the ministers were known as Wazir. Later under Jahangir, the office of Imperial  Diwan became prominent and then in Shah Jahan’s reign, the grand vizier’s title was transferred from the Vakil to  the Imperial Diwan. The most senior Minister among the Wazir was the Minister of Finance whereas the highest  office in the military was known as Khan Qanan. In fact, the Mughal palace also had a minister in charge of palace  maintenance affairs, known as Wazir Balat Sultani (Hamka 2018: 510).  

In addition, Hamka also described Akbar’s reforms which ultimately tainted his image as Mughal ruler among his  Muslim subjects. He promulgated Din-i-Ilahi (Religion of God), or known as Tawhid-i-Ilahi (Oneness of  God),which was said to combine the values of all religions in a unified religion as a way of life. In his opinion, all  religions preach morality, piety and kindness, and submission to one Almighty Essence. Hence he advocated a  religious understanding that refers to ‘Divine Unity’ to celebrate religious diversity in India, even though this was  opposed by his Muslim subjects, especially religious scholars in the palace. However, in his defence, some opinions  begged to differ, stating that Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi was in practical reality only an inter-faith theological dialogue for  mutual understanding of the values of every religion (Luka 2021: 1-9). The religion propounded by Akbar seemed  more of a political solution to Muslim rule over a predominantly Hindu majority, but it attracted only a small  number of followers. It mainly sought to maintain peace among Akbar’s subjects of different religions. 

Hamka proceeded in discussing Mughal history crossing over to Jahangir’s reign though only cursorily. There was  not much discussion by Hamka about Jahangir as he was a ruler who did not take after his father’s greatness and  excellence. Jahangir was regarded as weak as he always followed the words and decisons of his queen, Nur Mahal  or known as Nur Jahan in other sources (Hamka 2018: 513). Her excessive influence, especially interfering in  administrative affairs, indirectly caused him to be considered as less authoritative. This triggered problems at the  time, such as the rebellion in Deccan region, lack of transparency of tax collection by Mughal officers, and  opposition by his own son, Khurram.  

Next, Hamka discussed Mughal history during the reign of Khurram who ascended the throne in the year 1627 using  the title Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan was regarded as stronger and more authoritative than his father, Jahangir, because  he managed to quell the rebellion in Deccan region. However, Hamka (2018: 514) attributed Khurram’s success not  to his greatness but to his son, namely, Awrangzeb for his heroism and prowess in leading the Mughal army to  Deccan. This region was considered as the ‘thorn in the flesh’ as it frequently caused disturbance and chaos to 

 

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Mughal rule. Hamka elaborated much on military expeditions, in Shah Jahan’s era, led by Awrangzeb to the Deccan  region. This could be said to be the cause for Awrangzeb’s later opposition to his faher. Each time Awrangzeb led  an expedition and won the battle, he would send news to his father through his brother, Dara Shikuh. However,  Awrangzeb’s wish to advance further would be stopped by Shah Jahan after receiving the news. Hence, Awrangzeb  suspected that Dara Shikuh was jealous of his success in the Deccan region. The situation worsened when it became  obvious that Shah Jahan preferred Dara Shikuh to Awrangzeb. So Awrangzib conspired with his other siblings, Shah  Shuja‘ and Murad, to oppose Dara Shikuh’s army while their father was ill and unable to resolve any problems  arising then. Consequently, Awrangzeb’s army defeated Dara Shikuh’s army and entered the city of Agra. He then  declared himself as the new Mughal ruler, after deposing his father and confining him to house arrest in Fort Agra  until he died 8 years later in the year 1666 (Hamka 2018: 514).  

Hamka ended discussion of the first phase of Mughal history with the description of Awrangzeb’s reign. According  to Hamka (2018: 515), Awrangzeb’s ruled lasted for 47 years (1659-1707). He was regarded as the second leader  after Akbar who became the topic of discussion for historians because Awrangzeb had a puzzling personality, with  contradictory qualities. Awrangzeb was considered ruthless for killing his own brother for the throne and valiant in  the battle field. But he was also a devout Muslim who shed tears upon listening to edicts of religious experts.  Nevertheless, Hamka discussion of his reign mainly revolved around military expeditions to expand Mughal  dominion. It was said that the expeditions succeeded in expanding Mughal territory more than its size under Akbar.  Mughal controlled almost the whole of India stretching from Arakan to Kabul in Afghanistan. Following that,  revenues for the Mughal treasury increased from 500 million to a billion pound sterling a year (Hamka 2018: 516).  

Awrangzeb endeavoured to implement Islam in his administration such that it was said that the majority Hindu  society in the Indian region was suppressed. Among the efforts were building of mosques on Hindu holy land in  Benares, changing the name of Benares city to Ahmadabad and destroying Hindu temples. All these were attributed  to his personality as a righteous and devout Muslim (Hamka 2018: 516). Due to this, it was not surprising that he  was earnestly implementing Islam in his administration, as to himself, he was being cruel out of love for his religion.  However, whatever he endeavoured and built did not last after his demise in the year 1707. All the regions he once  controlled attempted to break away from Mughal dominion. Consequently, Mughal power continued to weaken and  diminish until Mughal dominion covered only Delhi and Agra as well as cities nearby these two regions.  

2. Second Phase (1707-1857)  

Discussion in the second phase of Mughal history is more focused on the kingdom’s own weaknesses and decline.  Hamka described this decline as beginning from Awrangzeb’s demise in the year 1707. From that time, Mughal rule  could be considered weak and ineffective in administrative affairs. Hamka gave the example of Nasir al-Din  Muhammad (1719-1748), who was considered a weak Mughal ruler as he did not make any preparations when Delhi  was threatened by the Persian military. Such weakness was made more humiliating by him going before the Persian  ruler to beg for compassion and protection, as well surrendering his assets such as the Mughal Peacock Throne,  which still stands in a Persian palace in Iran, as a sign of submission to Safavid rule. Mughal Crown Jewels were  also brought out of the country, among them the ‘Koh-i-Noor’ diamond which now forms part of British Crown  Jewels (Hamka 2018: 518-519). The information displayed by Hamka in the second phase illustrate the Mughal state  experiencing a very painful dark age.  

Based on Hamka’s discussion submitted, there are some factors which caused Mughal decline. One factor was the  weakness of the rulers. As asserted by Hamka, the Mughal rulers after Awrangzeb were weak in administration as  they were incompetent and unauthoritative in running the administration. In addition, the rulers were distracted by luxurious living, leading to negligence in government affairs. For example, Nasir al-Din Muhammad Shah (1719- 

1748) failed to make adequate preparations to counter Persian invasion (Hamka 2018: 518). Further, the Mughal  rulers in this phase became puppets without absolute authority. In fact, they were threatened by their own military  commanders, such as experienced by Jalal al-Din Shah Alam (1760-1788, 1788-1806) who was blinded by his own  army commander. This catastrophe caused the Mughal state to deteriorate until Indian rule was surrendered to the  British. As compensation, Jalal al-Din Shah Alam was retained as a puppet ruler, without absolute power and given  an allowance of 90,000 per month for his palace expenses by the British (Hamka 2018: 520). This situation  subjected the Mughal throne to colonial control and stripped them of absolute power that they had in the first phase.  

The second factor was the effort by small Indian kingdoms to break away from Mughal dominion. These vassal  kingdoms, both Hindu and Muslim, strived to be independent territories with the support of the British. For example, 

 

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Ahmad Khan Durrani, an Afghan warrior, invaded India in the year 1761. This assault on Delhi defeated the Mughal  army despite the armed support of Brahmana Hindu kingdoms for the Mughal army. As a consequence of Ahmad  Khan Durrani’s victory, Afghan region became independent from the Mughal dominion. In fact, Ahmad Khan  Durrani placed his governor in Delhi and gave permission for the Mughal ruler then, Jalal al-Din Shah Alam (1760- 1788, 1788-1806), to still hold the title of Mughal ruler but under the control of Afghanistan (Hamka 2018: 519). In  addition, the small vassal kingdoms of Benggala, Bihar and Orissa also broke free from Mughal domination, also  with British help and support. Consequently, the Mughal Kingdom lost many vassal states even though the British  paid as much as 2,600,000 rupees as compensation (Hamka 2018: 520). The vassal states became independent after  the central government in Delhi weakened and was unable to control them.  

The third factor for Mughal decline was external threats and attacks. Persian ruler and founder of the Afsharid  Dynasty, Nadir Shah sacked and looted Delhi causing Mughal rule to shake and weaken. This encouraged the  British through the East Indies Company to similarly threaten the status of Mughal rule in India. The British gave  assistance and support to small vassal kingdoms, both Hindu and Muslim, which wished to be independent from  Mughal dominion (Hamka 2018: 520). British interference added to the disorder and complications for Mughal rule.  After success in dividing the society in India, the British applied increasing politial pressure causing the Mughal  ruler to surrender administrative affairs centred in Delhi in the year 1806. The British tightened their grip more and more causing the people to rise up in rebellion, known as the Indian Rebellion in the year 1857, after which the  British acted to make India a British colony, ultimately wiping out the Mughal state from the political map after it  accepted defeat by the British. In fact, the last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, was banished with his family to  Yangon (Myanmar) and passed away in that city in the year 1862 (Hamka 2018: 521).  

However, Hamka did not discuss the post-Awrangzeb islah (reformist) movement in India. Among the prominent  reformist figures of that time was Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi (1702-1763). The miserable social environment and  weak rule in India at the time triggered reform efforts by al-Dahlawi. His struggle, to re-shape society, including the  ruling class, with the theme of going back to al-Quran, is a historical fact which deserves attention when discussing  the era of Mughal decline (Ishak 1992: 72). However, this matter was not mentioned by Hamka in his writing.  Perhaps, he had his own method of writing when displaying the history of each Islamic state, including the Mughal  Kingdom, by focusing solely on the politics and governance aspect.  

Conclusion:-  

The book, Sejarah Umat Islam, proved Hamka’s deep interest and knowledge in the field of Islamic history. His  work is a chronological discussion of Islamic civilization area zones, beginning with pre-Islamic history of Arabia  until the time of Islamic development in the Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). He wrote in the Malay language so  that readers in society, especially Malay readers, may understand and gain knowledge about Islamic history. One of  the topics discussed in the book is about Mughal history in India. The topic begins with the Turco-Mongol origin  and lineage of the Mughal dynasty, followed by the establishment of the Mughal state and its development into an  Kingdom in the first phase (1526-1707). Hamka then continued discussion relating to Mughal history in the second  phase (1707-1857) with focus on the decline of the Mughal Kingdom. Hence, Hamka’s records can serve as  additional reference to students and researchers, particularly those interested in the study of Islamic history and  civilization in India. This research is appropriate for reading as it reveals the work, Sejarah Umat Islam on Islamic  history in Malay language, and at once, proves Hamka’s ability to write in the field of Islamic history. In addition,  records of Mughal history in the work can cursorily give an initial description of the development of the Mughal  Kingdom and serve as additional information, after reference to other more authentic and critical sources.  

Acknowledgement:-  

This study is financed by Geran Galakan Penyelidik Muda(GGPM-2021-015),Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.  

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