By : Hakim Zainal
supported by the existence of various Islamic rulers in the
regions, beginning from the Umayyad era and ending with
Corresponding Author:- Mohamad Zulfazdlee Abul Hassan
Ashari
Address:- Research Centre for Arabic Language and Islamic
Civilization, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
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the Mughal era in the year 1857. Although India was conquered by
foreign invaders, the impact of Islamic civilization can still be seen
today, such as the buildingsof themagnificent Taj Mahal, Qutub Minar and Fort
Agra.
However, Islamic history of India would be incomplete without
discussing Mughal history. Hence, most historical works, in various
languages, included Mughal history in the main discussion of the whole Islamic
history in India. Among Malay works which also discuss Mughal history is Sejarah
Umat Islam by Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah, or known as Hamka. In
discussing history in his work, he used the research method, area studies,
by dividing into sections, discussion of Islamic history based on regions
or continents, beginning with pre-Islamic Arabian Peninsula until the
spread of Islam in the Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). The writing of
this book proved Hamka’s deep interest
and proficiency in writing Islamic history and civilization, thus adding to the
collection of Malay works in this
field
Writing about Mughal Kingdom in India
There are various sources, in English and Malay, which discuss
Mughal history. Among them are by Agrawal (2000), Ali (1997), Burn
(1987), Chaudary (1987), Dalrymple (2006), al-Faqi (2002), Naqvi (1977), Naved
(2010), Qamaruddin (2004), Schimmel (2005), Sharma (1988), Reeve (2012),
Fisher (2016) and Truschke (2017). In these sources, discussion not only
touch on the development of the Mughal Kingdom, beginning from its
establishment phase to the decline, but also focus on intellectual, arts,
economic and administrative issues, and about each of the Mughal
rulers.
Malay sources also did not miss out on discussing Mughal history
in India. One of them by Ishak (1992) discusses Islamic history in India
chronologically, beginning from the advent of Islam advent to the fall of the
Mughal Kingdom. Mughal history is discussed in one chapter, for the
Mughal era 1526-1763. Ishak intentionally selected the year 1763 as the
limit for discussing Mughal history even though most other references prefered
the period 1707- 1857 as Mughal decline and ending. This was because Ishak
(1992: 72) inserted the discussion relating to the islah
(reformist) figure, Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi, who passed away in
the year 1763. The discussion about the latter figure was deemed
important as his efforts to restore the true Islamic teachings were perceived
as a reaction to the Mughal Kingdom’s decline starting in the year 1707 after the demise of
Awrangzeb.
Likewise, Sejarah Islam, authored by Yahaya and Halimi
(1993: 447-527), also discuss Mughal history in India. A specific
chapter, entitled Islam in India, narrates the development of Islam in the
region, beginning from the spread of Islam to the era of Mughal weakness,
particularly after the demise of Awrangzeb in the year 1707. Discussion
of Mughal history covers the development of the kingdom under each of the
rulers beginning from the time of Babur until Awrangzeb. Discussion in
this book becomes more interesting when the issue of Mughal achievements
was included. The Mughal era is acknowledged as the golden age of Islam
in India as during this time the intellectual field had rapidly
developed. In addition, the architecture field reached its peak in Mughal era
(Yahaya & Halimi 1993: 515). Due to such statements, Mughal Kingdom
in India is selected as research subject to specifically study Hamka’s discussion of Mughal history and
civilization in his book, Sejarah
Umat Islam.
Bakar (2000: v-vii) also discussed Islamic history and
civilization in India, including the Mughal reign covering the time of
Babur until Awrangzeb, with focus on Mughal military expeditions. This is
evident in the discussion mostly covering war events, such the Battle of
Panipat, wars between the Mughals and Hindu kingdoms, and wars between
the Mughal royals themselves (Bakar 2000: 167-245). In addition, this book also
presents the factors for the fall of the Mughals (Bakar 2000: 245-249).
In a cursory discussion of Mughal history by Thohir and Kusdiana (2006: 83- 102), focus is on each ruler’s reign, from Babur
to Awrangzeb. The history presented revolves around Mughal political development such as territorial expansion and wars.
Meanwhile, Nor and Ashari (2017) analysed the Mughal political crisis, specifically during
Shah Jahan’s rule.
There is an article by Ashari et al. (2013) relating to history of
Islam in India. This article does not specifically discuss Mughal
history, focusing more on the history of Islam in India in the early and
medieval centuries. However, the issue analysed may be the subject of
research as the article is an attempt to explore the history of Islam in
India based on authentic history books. The research corpus for the
article is al-Kamil fi al-Tarikh by Ibn al-Athir.
Book reviews of Hamka’s Sejarah Umat Islam have
been writtenrecently. One of them was by Ashari and Jamsari (2010)
in which Hamka was described as a writer and scholar who mastered many fields
of knowledge, including Islamic history. This statement is based on his
writing the book Sejarah Umat Islam which displayed historical
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events beginning from Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) Arabia to
the Islamic states in the Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). Hamka
described historical events not only in big Islamic states, but also involved
various duwaylat (statelets), including the Marinid state in
al-Maghrib region (Ashari & Jamsari 2010: 229-237). The process of
establishing and developing the Marinid state in al-Maghrib is one of the
issues discussed by Hamka in his work. Another review by Jamsari et al.
(2011) is focused on the history of Islamic states in al-Andalus in Hamka’s Sejarah Umat Islam.
The review finds that Hamka had divided his discussion of Islamic states
in al-Andalus into two parts, namely, the Umayyad and Muluk al-Tawa’if
eras. According to Hamka, the Umayyad reign in al-Andalus was divided into
three eras, namely al-Wulah, al-Imarah and al-Khilafah, and enjoyed its golden age during the rule of
Caliph ‘Abd al
Rahman al-Nasir. In contrast, Muluk al-Tawa’if rule
witnessed chaos in al-Andalus (Jamsari et al. 2011: 170-171). The writers’ later review clearly proved that
Hamka had a deep interest and proficiency in producing his work on Islamic history. Historical narration based on area grouping facilitates the reader’s understanding
of Islamic history. Incidentally,
the regions of the Indian sub-continent
are also discussed in Hamka’s work Sejarah
Umat Islam, thus this
article aims to study part of the Islamic history in India by focusing on the
Mughal era.
The purpose of this article is to study Hamka’s
writing about Mughal history in India. The aim of this research is to
critically understand Hamka’s display and discussion relating to Mughal history
submitted in his work. This research
is by design qualitative in approach using historical study as a method of
gathering and analysing data. The historical method was used to collect data with focus on Hamka’s
work, Sejarah Umat Islam, while data analysis was done using descriptive historical
interpretation method by presenting the main issues of Mughal history
discussed in his work.
Biography of Hamka
His name was Haji Abdul Malik Karim Amrullah, better known as
Hamka. He was born at Kampung Molek, Maninjau, Sumatera Barat on 17th February 1908 and passed away in Jakarta on 24th July 1981 (Yaakob 2012, 1:74; Mahmudah 2017: 90, Arbain 2017: 77; Steenbrink 1994). Other
writings state that Hamka’s date of birth was 18th February 1908 (Shobahussurur 1430H: 82). He is remembered as a
writer, preacher, scholar and political activist. He was also given the
title Buya, a nickname by the Minangkabau society, which means father or
someone revered. His father, Shaykh Abdul Karim bin Amrullah, or better
known as Haji Rasul, was one of the pioneers of the tajdid movement in
Minangkabau after returning from Mecca in the year 1906.
Hamka received his primary education up to standard two at the
Sekolah Dasar Maninjau. At age ten years, his father established Sumatera
Thawalib at Padang Panjang. There, he attended religious studies and Arabic
language. He became a religious teacherin the year 1927 at Perkebunan
Tebing Tinggi, Medan and then moved to Padang Panjang in the year 1929.
Later, Hamkawas appointed as lecturer at Universiti Islam, Jakarta and
Universiti Muhammadiyah, Padang Panjang from 1957 to 1958. After that, he
was appointed as Rector of Perguruan Tinggi Islam, Jakarta and thenas
Professor of Universiti Mustopo, Jakarta.
Hamka was an active member of the Islamic movement, Kumpulan
Muhammadiyah. According to Kanafi et al. (2021), Muhammadiyah, an Ahli
Sunnah Waljamaahorganization, was formed in the year 1912. Hamka
joined Muhammadiyah in the year 1925 to oppose khurafat, bid‘ah,
tarekatandheresy at Padang Panjang. In the year 1929, Hamka
established a Muhammadiyah preacher training centre and was selected as
Muhammadiyah consul at Makassar two years later. Then, he was selected as
the head of Muhammadiyah Leadership Council in West Sumatra by the
Muhammadiyah Conference, replacing S.Y. Sultan Mangkuto in the year 1946. In
the year 1953, Hamka was selected as Adviser of Pusat Muhammadiyah. On
the 26th July 1977, Indonesian
Minister of Religions, Prof. Dr. Mukti Ali appointed Hamka as General
Chairman of Majlis Ulama Indonesia (Council of Indonesian Religious
Scholars), but he later resigned in the year 1981 because his advice was
ignored by the Indonesian government.
Hamka’s political activities began in the year
1925 when he joined Partai Politik Sarekat Islam (Islamic Union Party) (Zuhaidi & Lubis 2021: 74-82). In the year
1945, he assisted in the struggle against the Colonial Dutch through his
speeches and joined guerilla activity in the jungle in Medan. In the year 1947,
Hamka was appointed as Chief of Barisan Pertahanan Nasional Indonesia
(National Defence Front of Indonesia). He became a member of Masyumi
(Council of Muslim Indonesian Associations)and the main speaker in the 1955
General Election. Later, Masyumi was banned by the Indonesian government
in the year 1960. From 1964 until 1966, Hamka was imprisoned by President
Sukarno on the charge of being pro-Malaysian. While in prison, he wrote Tafsir
al Azharwhich turned out to be his greatest scholarly work.Upon release
from prison, he was appointed as member of
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Badan Musyawarah Kebajikan Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian National
Welfare Consultative Body), Majlis Perjalanan Haji Indonesia (Indonesian
Pilgrimage Council)and Lembaga Kebudayaan Nasional Indonesia (Indonesian
National Culture Board).
Besides his religious and political activities, Hamka was a
journalist, writer, editor and publisher. Since the 1920’s,
he became a journalist for some newspapers such asPelita Andalas, Seruan
Islam, Bintang IslamandSeruan Muhammadiyah. In the year
1928, he was editor for the magazine, Kemajuan Masyarakat. Then in the
year 1932, he was appointed as editor and published al-Mahdimagazine
in Makassar. Hamka was also editor of the magazines,Pedoman Masyarakat,
Panji MasyarakatandGema Islam. Hamka was a prolific writer of
Islamic scholarly as well as creative works such as novels and short
stories. His greatest scholarly contribution is a 4-volume
interpretation, Tafsir al-Azhar. His novels attracted public attention
and became literature textbooks in Malaysia and Singapore, such asTenggelamnya
Kapal Van Der Wijck, Di Bawah Lindungan KaabahandMerantau ke Deli.
Hamka also received in his lifetime national and international
awards, such as an Honorary Doctorate from al-Azhar University in the
year 1958, Honorary Doctorate from Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM, The
National University of Malaysia) in the year 1974 and the titles, Datuk
Indonoas well as Pengeran Wirogunofrom the Indonesian
Government. Hamka passed away on 24th July 1981. However, his
service to society will always be remembered and his influence is felt
even today, for dignifying the status of Islam, and he will always be
honoured as a prominent scholar and writer in Indonesia, Malaysia and
Singapore (Ashari &Jamsari 2010: 232).
According to some
researchers’ notes, Hamka produced as many 103 works of diverse genres, such
as autobiography,
biography, Islamic philosophy and knowledge, tradition and sociology, travel
journal, translation, tafsir (interpretation), history and novel.
Out of this number, about 14 are literary works (novel) successfully
written by him (Hashim 2016: 4). Other researchers hold the opinion that
he authored 113 books in his lifetime (Aziz 2009, 10:124). This proved
and earned him the reputation as a prolific writer of diverse genres. Some of
his works are Tasawuf Moderen, Falsafah Hidup, Lembaga
Budi, Kenang-kenangan Hidup, Sejarah Umat Islam, Keadilan
Sosial dalam Islam and Tafsir al-Azhar.
His Work, Sejarah Umat Islam
The writing of this book by Hamka took him a duration of 22 years
to complete, beginning from the year 1939 until 1961. It elaborated on
the history of Muslims beginning from Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) Arabia to
the development of Islam in the Malay World. Hamka (2018: 1) had stated
that this book would take a long time to complete due to the rising cost
of paper at the time. In addition, his pre-occupation with the struggle to fill Indonesia’s
independence with the call of Islam
and his other writings in diverse fields delayed the publication of Sejarah
Umat Islam.
This work is divided into four volumes. The first volume discusses
the circumstances and environment in the Arabian Peninsula, the terrain,
demography, earth produce, social practice and lifestyle of Jahliyah society.
In addition, this volume
also discusses the environment of Arabia during the Prophet Muhammad’s PBUH
time in Mecca, and later in
Medina (Hamka 2018: 1-2). The second volume discusses the reign of the Khulafa’
al-Rashidin (Rightly Guided Caliphs), Umayyad rule, Abbasid rule, and
Islamic kingdoms in the Maghreb (Northern Africa) and al-Andalus. Among
the matters discussed are the futuhat al-Islamiyyah movement, wars
between the Muslim armies and Romans as well as Persians, political
opposition, the Crusades, and clashes between the Muslims and Christians
in al-Andalus (Hamka 2018: 2-3).
The third volume discusses the expansion process of Islamic state
dominion to the eastern region, including Persia, Afghanistan and India.
The Islamic sovereignties which were once established in this region were the
Ghaznavid, Ghurid, Delhi and Mughal Kingdoms (Hamka 2018: 3-4). The
fourth volume discusses the history of Islam in the Malay World. Hamka’s book discusses the topic of
Islamic Malay kingdoms which includes
Samudera-Pasai, Melaka, Acheh, Johor, Demak, Mataram, Bantam in Java
Island as well Ternate in the Maluku Islands. According to Hamka (2018:
4), the fourth volume is the heaviest compared to the rest because there was no
available structured written sources of Islamic history in the Nusantara
at the time of writing this volume. For this volume, he cited much
information from several classical sources such as Sejarah Melayu, Hikayat
Raja-raja Pasai, Tuhfat al-Nafis, Sejarah Cheribon, Babad
Gianti and Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa. He collected materials from
his travels throughout Indonesia, Tanah Melayu (Peninsular
Malaya), Brunei and Sarawak. In addition, he obtained materials from
state governments as historical materials were mostly not printed yet and kept
in palace archives. The Malay state rulers who availed historical
materials to him were Seri Paduka Sultan Siak Seri Inderapura (1940),
Sultan
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Terengganu (1955), Sultan Perak (1958), Aru Mappanyukki Raja Bone
(1955), Raja Gowa (1956), Tengku Ahmad Tajuddin Ibni Sultan Kedah and
Sultan Brunei (1960). Further, he also obtained materials from the Dutch
and English to make comparisons with Malay historical records obtained
from the Malay rulers (Hamka 1980; Ashari & Jamsari 2010:
235).
Although his work has its merits, in terms of compilation and
discussion of historical issues, it also has its shortcoming,
specifically in the use of sources as reference. It is not stated in the
preface the sources used by him in writing the history of Islam,
particularly in the Middle East region, beginning from the time of the
Prophet Muhammad PBUH until the Ottoman era. However, this shortcoming
does not at all affect his presentation when writing his work, Sejarah
Umat Islam. This work can still be used as reference to obtain an early
impression of an Islamic rulers and kingdom in a region.
Mughal Kingdom of India in Sejarah Umat Islam
Hamka divided discussion of Mughal history in India into two
phases. The first phase covers the period 1526 to 1707. This era began
from the founding of the Mughal Kingdom by Babur until the end of its golden
age under Awrangzeb rule. The second phase covers the decline and
weakening of the Mughal Kingdom, beginning from Awrangzeb’s demise in the year 1707 until its
fall to the English in the yera 1857.
1. First Phase (1526-1707)
Discussion of the first phase begins about the Mughal founder,
Babur. Hamka took the opportunity to praise the Mughal Kingdom in India
with the statement that the kingdom was among the unforgettable pride of
Islam, analogous to a gem in the records of Islamic history, similar to
the Umayyads in al-Andalus, the Abbasids in Baghdad and the Ottomans in
Eastern Europe (Hamka 2018: 500). Such a statement is due to the glorious
civilizations of the said regions which developed during their rule. In
addition, Hamka also briefly stated that the Mughal ruler, Babur, was of
Turko-Mongol lineage, from Timurlane on the paternal side, and from Genghis
Khan on the maternal side (Hamka 2018: 501). This was probably to prove
Babur, highly regarded as a great Mughal war commander in history, was
also of noble and heroic bloodline.
Hamka continued with records of Babur’s heroism
with a description of how he tried to conquer some areas near Iran in the year 1497 when he was still in his teens. Despite
losing in fighting against Muhammad Khan Shaybani, the ruler of Bukhara,
and retreating to Afghanistan, he continued his efforts to conquer other
regions, among them Kabul and Kandahar, in the year 1504. Hamka viewed Babur’s control over the two regions as the
entryway for Babur to dominate India
(Hamka 2018: 501). Babur carried out his military expedition to India in the
year 1525 with a strength of 13,000 fighters. The expedition succeeded in
capturing Punjab region and advanced next to Delhi, administrative centre
of the Delhi Sultanate, ruled by Ibrahim Lodi II. Ibrahim Lodi commanded his
army of 100,000 soldiers with 1,000 elephants to resist Babur and his men
in the Battle of Panipat on 21st April 1526.
Despite Ibrahim Lodi’s bigger army,
Babur’s fighters did not experience a major difficulty in winning that
historic war. According to Hamka (2018: 502), Babur’s victory was
supported by using cannons and weapons that Ibrahim Lodi’s army did not
posssess. As a result of the victory, Babur
departed for Delhi and proclaimed himself as ruler of India.
Discussion in the first phase continued with the
era of Humayun, Babur’s prince. After Humayun ascended the throne, he made efforts to deal with his competitors, namely,
Sultan Mahmud Lodi based at Aud, Bahadur Shah at Gujerat and Sher Khan at
Chunar. Initially, Humayun overcame them, but Sher Khan did not give up and re
organized his military force. So the battle between them resumed at Boksar in
the year 1535, which saw Humayun defeated. A second battle between them
took place in the year 1540 at Kanauj, that resulted in a worse defeat
for Humayun. Humayun was forced to retreat, seeking political asylum and
military reinforcement from the Safavid Kingdom. His requests were
granted, and with Safavid military assistance, Humayun dominated the regions
one by one, among them, Kandahar (1545) and Kabul (1550).
Humayun then went on his mission to capture Delhi on learning that
Sher Khan had passed away in the year 1545, leaving the kingdom in a
fractured state. Humayun took the opportunity of leading a 15,000-strong
cavalry, advancing toward Delhi.
Sher Khan’s successor, Iskandar Shah led an 80,000-strong army to intercept
Humayun’s invasion. Hence, they fought at Sirhind Valley, located between
Delhi and Lahore. Humayun’s preparedness, and his courageous and well-equipped cavalry defeated Iskandar Shah
and his bigger army in the year 1555. This victory
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restored Humayun’s dignity after he was deprived
of his throne for 13 years and also reinstated Mughal dynasty as ruler in India. However, he did not continue to rule long as he
passed away the following year (Hamka 2018: 505).
Next, Hamka continued discussing Mughal history
during Akbar’s era. Akbar was quite unschooled, hence functionally illiterate, as he was forced to rule at a young age
of 15 years. Throughout his reign, he was assisted by the Prime Minister, Bayram Khan. Initially,
Akbar was forced to confront Hemu’s army who tried again to destroy
Mughal power. Hemu’s 100,000 strong army with 500 elephants invaded Delhi
causing Akbar to retreat with his army
to Punjab. There, Akbar and Bayram Khan re-organised their 20,000 strong army to confront Hemu’s army
at Panipat Vallley. In the battle, Akbar’s army gained victory after Hemu
was killed in the battlefield, causing chaos for his soldiers as their leader had died. This victory established Akbar’s leadership as the
legitimate Mughal ruler in India
(Hamka 2018: 506). From that time, Akbar continued his mission to expand Mughal
dominion with the purpose of uniting India under the Mughal Kingdom.
Initially, he sent emissaries to Hindu kings and requested them to submit
to Mughal authority. Various feedbacks were received from the Hindu kings, some
accepted conditionally and others strongly opposed. Hence, Akbar used the
military approach to confront those who refused to submit, namely, Raja
of Gwalior in the year 1558, Raja of Ajmer (1560), Raja of Mewar (1567) and
Raja of Kalingar (1569).
After Akbar dominated the Hindu regions, he then turned his
attention to Muslim kingdoms in India. He launched military expeditions
to conquer the regions of Gujerat (1573), Bengal (1580), Kashmir (1586) and
Sind (1592). Then he conquered the entire Deccan region in the year 1600
after spending five long years attempting to do so. His army met with
fierce opposition from Ahmadnagar’s
army led by Sultanah Shandah, also known as Baidaa-i Dekan.
Her demise in the year 1600 opened the opportunity for Akbar to conquer
Deccan region (Hamka 2018: 509).
Hamka explained some of the reforms that Akbar implemented. One of
them was the restructuring of al-Wizarah system. Akbar did not
rule single-handedly but was assisted by ministers of diverse ethnicity and
religion, such as Persian, Turkish and
Hindu. In Akbar’s reign, the office of Prime Minister was known as Vakil-us-Sultanat (Representative
of the Ruler) while the ministers were known as Wazir. Later under
Jahangir, the office of Imperial Diwan became prominent and then in Shah Jahan’s reign,
the grand vizier’s title was transferred from the Vakil to the Imperial Diwan.
The most senior Minister among the Wazir was the Minister of Finance
whereas the highest office in the military was known as Khan Qanan. In
fact, the Mughal palace also had a minister in charge of palace
maintenance affairs, known as Wazir Balat Sultani (Hamka 2018:
510).
In addition, Hamka also described Akbar’s
reforms which ultimately tainted his image as Mughal ruler among his Muslim subjects. He promulgated Din-i-Ilahi (Religion of
God), or known as Tawhid-i-Ilahi (Oneness of God),which was
said to combine the values of all religions in a unified religion as a way of life.
In his opinion, all religions preach morality, piety and kindness, and
submission to one Almighty Essence. Hence he advocated a religious understanding that refers to ‘Divine
Unity’ to celebrate religious diversity in
India, even though this was opposed by his Muslim subjects, especially
religious scholars in the palace. However, in his defence, some opinions begged to differ, stating that Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi was in
practical reality only an inter-faith theological dialogue for mutual
understanding of the values of every religion (Luka 2021: 1-9). The religion
propounded by Akbar seemed more of a political solution to Muslim rule
over a predominantly Hindu majority, but it attracted only a small number of followers. It mainly sought to maintain peace
among Akbar’s subjects of different religions.
Hamka proceeded in discussing Mughal history
crossing over to Jahangir’s reign though only cursorily. There was not much discussion by Hamka about Jahangir as he was a ruler who did not take after his father’s
greatness and excellence. Jahangir was
regarded as weak as he always followed the words and decisons of his queen, Nur
Mahal or known as Nur Jahan in other sources (Hamka 2018: 513). Her
excessive influence, especially interfering in administrative affairs,
indirectly caused him to be considered as less authoritative. This triggered
problems at the time, such as the rebellion in Deccan region, lack of
transparency of tax collection by Mughal officers, and opposition by his
own son, Khurram.
Next, Hamka discussed Mughal history during the reign of Khurram
who ascended the throne in the year 1627 using the title Shah Jahan. Shah
Jahan was regarded as stronger and more authoritative than his father,
Jahangir, because he managed to quell the
rebellion in Deccan region. However, Hamka (2018: 514) attributed Khurram’s
success not to his greatness but to
his son, namely, Awrangzeb for his heroism and prowess in leading the Mughal
army to Deccan. This region was considered as the ‘thorn in the flesh’ as it frequently caused
disturbance and chaos to
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Mughal rule. Hamka elaborated much on military
expeditions, in Shah Jahan’s era, led by Awrangzeb to the Deccan region. This could be said to be the cause for Awrangzeb’s later opposition to his faher. Each time
Awrangzeb led an expedition and won
the battle, he would send news to his father through his brother, Dara Shikuh.
However, Awrangzeb’s wish to
advance further would be stopped by Shah Jahan after receiving the news. Hence, Awrangzeb suspected that Dara Shikuh was
jealous of his success in the Deccan region. The situation worsened when it
became obvious that Shah Jahan preferred Dara Shikuh to Awrangzeb. So
Awrangzib conspired with his other siblings, Shah Shuja‘ and Murad, to oppose Dara Shikuh’s army
while their father was ill and unable to resolve any problems arising
then. Consequently, Awrangzeb’s army defeated Dara Shikuh’s army and entered
the city of Agra. He then declared
himself as the new Mughal ruler, after deposing his father and confining him to
house arrest in Fort Agra until he died 8 years later in the year 1666
(Hamka 2018: 514).
Hamka ended discussion of the first phase of
Mughal history with the description of Awrangzeb’s reign. According to Hamka (2018: 515),
Awrangzeb’s ruled lasted for 47 years (1659-1707).
He was regarded as the second leader after Akbar who became the topic of
discussion for historians because Awrangzeb had a puzzling personality,
with contradictory qualities. Awrangzeb was considered ruthless for
killing his own brother for the throne and valiant in the battle field.
But he was also a devout Muslim who shed tears upon listening to edicts of
religious experts. Nevertheless, Hamka discussion of his reign mainly
revolved around military expeditions to expand Mughal dominion. It was
said that the expeditions succeeded in expanding Mughal territory more than its
size under Akbar. Mughal controlled almost the whole of India stretching
from Arakan to Kabul in Afghanistan. Following that, revenues for the
Mughal treasury increased from 500 million to a billion pound sterling a year
(Hamka 2018: 516).
Awrangzeb endeavoured to implement Islam in his administration
such that it was said that the majority Hindu society in the Indian
region was suppressed. Among the efforts were building of mosques on Hindu holy
land in Benares, changing the name of Benares city to Ahmadabad and
destroying Hindu temples. All these were attributed to his personality as
a righteous and devout Muslim (Hamka 2018: 516). Due to this, it was not surprising
that he was earnestly implementing Islam in his administration, as to
himself, he was being cruel out of love for his religion. However,
whatever he endeavoured and built did not last after his demise in the year
1707. All the regions he once controlled attempted to break away from
Mughal dominion. Consequently, Mughal power continued to weaken and
diminish until Mughal dominion covered only Delhi and Agra as well as cities
nearby these two regions.
2. Second Phase (1707-1857)
Discussion in the second phase of Mughal history is more focused
on the kingdom’s own weaknesses and
decline. Hamka described this decline as beginning from Awrangzeb’s
demise in the year 1707. From that time, Mughal rule could be considered weak and ineffective in administrative
affairs. Hamka gave the example of Nasir al-Din Muhammad (1719-1748), who
was considered a weak Mughal ruler as he did not make any preparations when
Delhi was threatened by the Persian military. Such weakness was made more
humiliating by him going before the Persian ruler to beg for compassion
and protection, as well surrendering his assets such as the Mughal Peacock
Throne, which still stands in a Persian palace in Iran, as a sign of
submission to Safavid rule. Mughal Crown Jewels were also brought out of the country, among them the
‘Koh-i-Noor’ diamond which now
forms part of British Crown Jewels (Hamka 2018: 518-519). The information
displayed by Hamka in the second phase illustrate the Mughal state
experiencing a very painful dark age.
Based on Hamka’s discussion submitted, there are
some factors which caused Mughal decline.
One factor was the weakness of the rulers. As asserted by Hamka, the
Mughal rulers after Awrangzeb were weak in administration as they were
incompetent and unauthoritative in running the administration. In addition, the
rulers were distracted by luxurious living, leading to negligence in government
affairs. For example, Nasir al-Din Muhammad Shah (1719-
1748) failed to make adequate preparations to counter Persian
invasion (Hamka 2018: 518). Further, the Mughal rulers in this phase
became puppets without absolute authority. In fact, they were threatened by
their own military commanders, such as experienced by Jalal al-Din Shah
Alam (1760-1788, 1788-1806) who was blinded by his own army commander.
This catastrophe caused the Mughal state to deteriorate until Indian rule was
surrendered to the British. As compensation, Jalal al-Din Shah Alam was
retained as a puppet ruler, without absolute power and given an allowance
of 90,000 per month for his palace expenses by the British (Hamka 2018: 520).
This situation subjected the Mughal throne to colonial control and
stripped them of absolute power that they had in the first phase.
The second factor was the effort by small Indian kingdoms to break
away from Mughal dominion. These vassal kingdoms, both Hindu and Muslim,
strived to be independent territories with the support of the British. For
example,
ISSN: 2320-5407 Int. J. Adv. Res. 9(11), 970-978
Ahmad Khan Durrani, an Afghan warrior, invaded India in the year
1761. This assault on Delhi defeated the Mughal army despite the armed
support of Brahmana Hindu kingdoms for the Mughal army. As a consequence of
Ahmad Khan Durrani’s victory,
Afghan region became independent from the Mughal dominion. In fact, Ahmad
Khan Durrani placed his
governor in Delhi and gave permission for the Mughal ruler then, Jalal al-Din
Shah Alam (1760- 1788, 1788-1806), to still hold the title of Mughal ruler but
under the control of Afghanistan (Hamka 2018: 519). In addition, the
small vassal kingdoms of Benggala, Bihar and Orissa also broke free from Mughal
domination, also with British help and support. Consequently, the Mughal
Kingdom lost many vassal states even though the British paid as much as
2,600,000 rupees as compensation (Hamka 2018: 520). The vassal states became
independent after the central government in Delhi weakened and was unable
to control them.
The third factor for Mughal decline was external threats and
attacks. Persian ruler and founder of the Afsharid Dynasty, Nadir Shah
sacked and looted Delhi causing Mughal rule to shake and weaken. This
encouraged the British through the East Indies Company to similarly
threaten the status of Mughal rule in India. The British gave assistance
and support to small vassal kingdoms, both Hindu and Muslim, which wished to be
independent from Mughal dominion (Hamka 2018: 520). British interference
added to the disorder and complications for Mughal rule. After success in
dividing the society in India, the British applied increasing politial pressure
causing the Mughal ruler to surrender administrative affairs centred in
Delhi in the year 1806. The British tightened their grip more and more causing
the people to rise up in rebellion, known as the Indian Rebellion in the year
1857, after which the British acted to make India a British colony,
ultimately wiping out the Mughal state from the political map after it
accepted defeat by the British. In fact, the last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah
II, was banished with his family to Yangon (Myanmar) and passed away in
that city in the year 1862 (Hamka 2018: 521).
However, Hamka did not discuss the post-Awrangzeb islah (reformist)
movement in India. Among the prominent reformist figures of that time was
Shah Wali Allah al-Dahlawi (1702-1763). The miserable social environment
and weak rule in India at the time triggered reform efforts by
al-Dahlawi. His struggle, to re-shape society, including the ruling
class, with the theme of going back to al-Quran, is a historical fact which
deserves attention when discussing the era of Mughal decline (Ishak 1992:
72). However, this matter was not mentioned by Hamka in his writing.
Perhaps, he had his own method of writing when displaying the history of each
Islamic state, including the Mughal Kingdom, by focusing solely on the
politics and governance aspect.
Conclusion:-
The book, Sejarah Umat Islam, proved Hamka’s deep interest and knowledge in the field
of Islamic history. His work is a
chronological discussion of Islamic civilization area zones, beginning with
pre-Islamic history of Arabia until the time of Islamic development in
the Nusantara (Malay Archipelago). He wrote in the Malay language
so that readers in society, especially Malay readers, may understand and
gain knowledge about Islamic history. One of the topics discussed in the
book is about Mughal history in India. The topic begins with the Turco-Mongol
origin and lineage of the Mughal dynasty, followed by the establishment
of the Mughal state and its development into an Kingdom in the first
phase (1526-1707). Hamka then continued discussion relating to Mughal history
in the second phase (1707-1857) with focus on the decline of the Mughal
Kingdom. Hence, Hamka’s records
can serve as additional reference to
students and researchers, particularly those interested in the study of Islamic
history and civilization in India. This research is appropriate for
reading as it reveals the work, Sejarah Umat Islam on Islamic history in Malay language, and at once, proves
Hamka’s ability to write in the field of Islamic history. In addition, records of Mughal history in the work can cursorily give an
initial description of the development of the Mughal Kingdom and serve as
additional information, after reference to other more authentic and critical
sources.
Acknowledgement:-
This study is financed by Geran Galakan Penyelidik Muda(GGPM-2021-015),Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia.
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